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Responsible Mining in Practice Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles — A Self-Assessment Learning Manual on Mine Operations, Safety, Waste, Water and Mine Closure for Practising Mining Personnel Prof. Khanindra Pathak, PhD (Imperial College, London) · Emeritus Professor, Department of Mining Engineering, IIT Kharagpur First edition · October 2026 Abstract For mine managers, engineers, plant, maintenance, environmental, water, closure, compliance and safety staff, regulators, educators and small-scale mining leaders in the United Republic of Tanzania. Seven chapters, with worked examples, Tanzanian cases, field tasks, self-tests and a capability profile for self-assessment.

Responsible Mining in Practice Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles — A Self-Assessment Learning Manual on Mine Operations, Safety, Waste, Water and Mine Closure for Practising Mining Personnel Khanindra Pathak Emeritus Professor, Department of Mining Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, West Bengal, India First Edition: October 2026 © 2026 Khanindra Pathak. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means — electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise — without the prior written permission of the author, except for brief quotations in reviews and scholarly works with full acknowledgement. Permission to copy self-assessment material. Readers may photocopy the Rate yourself boxes, self-tests, field-task sheets, the site maturity profile and the capability profile in Appendix A for their own learning and for non-commercial training within their organisation, provided this book is acknowledged as the source. Suggested citation Pathak, K. (2026). Responsible Mining in Practice: Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles — A Self-Assessment Learning Manual for Practising Mining Personnel (1st ed.). Kharagpur, India. Disclaimer This book is intended for education and professional development. It does not constitute legal advice and is not a substitute for professional engineering judgement, site-specific design or the requirements of the regulator. Laws, regulations, standards and fees cited were believed correct at the time of writing but change frequently; readers must confirm the current gazetted text with the Mining Commission, NEMC, OSHA, the Basin Water Boards or other competent authority before acting. Figures in worked examples are illustrative unless a source is given. The author accepts no liability for loss or damage arising from the use of the information in this book. Names of standards and organisations, including ISO, GISTM, ICMM and IFC, are used for identification and education only; the standards remain the property of their owners. This manual was prepared by the author with the assistance of artificial- intelligence tools for compilation, drafting, figures and layout, under the author’s direction and review (see Preface). Set in Cambria and Calibri. Cover: a cross-section of a mine through its life — from the open pit to restored land — in seven strata, one for each chapter.

Contents Preface............................................................................................................................................. 6 Acknowledgements.............................................................................................................................................. 7 How to Use This Book....................................................................................................................... 8 A book you direct................................................................................................................................................. 8 The parts of every chapter................................................................................................................................... 8 Box types.............................................................................................................................................................. 8 How to assess yourself.........................................................................................................................................9 Suggested reading routes.................................................................................................................................... 9 Abbreviations................................................................................................................................. 11 1 Tanzania’s Mining Sector: Context, Policy Anchors and the Integrated Mine.................................13 1.1 Learning outcomes and self-rating............................................................................................................... 13 1.2 The sector at a glance..................................................................................................................................13 1.3 National policy anchors................................................................................................................................16 1.4 Ownership, fiscal terms and local content................................................................................................... 17 1.5 The integrated framework........................................................................................................................... 18 1.6 People, licence and ore: the social dimension.............................................................................................20 1.7 Your site’s maturity profile........................................................................................................................... 22 1.8 Key points..................................................................................................................................................... 24 1.9 Self-test 1..................................................................................................................................................... 24 2 Legal Compliance, Mine Safety and Incident Investigation............................................................26 2.1 Learning outcomes and self-rating............................................................................................................... 26 2.2 The legal and institutional architecture....................................................................................................... 26 2.3 Tracing an obligation: the obligation chain.................................................................................................. 29 2.4 Obligations across the life of the mine......................................................................................................... 32 2.5 The compliance register and evidence......................................................................................................... 32 2.6 Appraisal of policy implementation.............................................................................................................33 2.7 Mine safety in Tanzanian law.......................................................................................................................34 2.8 Investigating incidents................................................................................................................................. 36 2.9 Key points..................................................................................................................................................... 40 2.10 Self-test 2................................................................................................................................................... 40 3 Surface Mine Operations, Machinery and Productivity.................................................................42 3.1 Learning outcomes and self-rating............................................................................................................... 42 3.2 Why “tonnes per shilling”................................................................................

3.10 Asset management: availability by design.................................................................................................49 3.11 Key points................................................................................................................................................... 50 3.12 Self-test 3................................................................................................................................................... 50 4 Bulk Material Handling, Mineral Logistics and Asset Life-Cycle Cost..............................................52 4.1 Learning outcomes and self-rating............................................................................................................... 52 4.2 The chain from face to market.....................................................................................................................52 4.3 Why the chain matters: availability in series................................................................................................ 53 4.4 Trucks, conveyors and in-pit crushing.......................................................................................................... 54 4.5 Tanzanian practice and logistics corridors................................................................................................... 55 4.6 Contemporary technologies appraised........................................................................................................ 56 4.7 First Mile Connectivity: lessons from India.................................................................................................. 58 4.8 Life-cycle cost and maintenance by criticality..............................................................................................60 4.9 Appropriate digitisation...............................................................................................................................61 4.10 Enterprise opportunities for Tanzanian youth...........................................................................................61 4.11 Key points................................................................................................................................................... 62 4.12 Self-test 4................................................................................................................................................... 63 5 Mineral Processing, Mine Waste and Tailings Governance............................................................64 5.1 Learning outcomes and self-rating............................................................................................................... 64 5.2 What “sustainable mining” means............................................................................................................... 64 5.3 Gold processing in Tanzania: from run-of-mine to tailings.......................................................................... 67 5.4 Mine waste streams and the waste hierarchy.............................................................................................68 5.5 Is the rock acid forming? Acid–base accounting..........................................................................................69 5.6 Tailings: technologies, raising methods and governance.............................................................................70 5.7 Artisanal gold and mercury.......................................................................................................................... 72 5.8 Governance gaps and waste to value........................................................................................................... 73 5.9 Key points..................................................................................................................................................... 74 5.10 Self-test 5................................................................................................................................................... 74 6 Mine Water Management: From Data to Decision........................................................................76 6.1 Learning outcomes and self-rating............................................................................................................... 76 6.2 Two problems in one year............................................................................................................................ 76 6.3 Know your water: classes and separation....................................................................................................77 6.4 Risks, permits and indicators........................................................................................................................ 78 6.5 The site water balance................................................................................................................................. 79 6.6 From data to decision...................................

7.6 The digital mine............................................................................................................................................ 92 7.7 Your development pathway.........................................................................................................................94 7.8 Key points..................................................................................................................................................... 96 7.9 Self-test 7..................................................................................................................................................... 96 Appendix A — Capability Profile......................................................................................................98 Appendix B — Answers to Self-Tests.............................................................................................101 Multiple-choice answers.................................................................................................................................. 101 Problems.......................................................................................................................................................... 101 Appendix C — Glossary................................................................................................................. 103 Appendix D — Sources and Further Reading.................................................................................. 105 Source documents of the training programme................................................................................................105 Tanzanian sector, law and policy.....................................................................................................................105 Cases................................................................................................................................................................ 105 Standards and technical references.................................................................................................................106 Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 5

Preface No two mines are alike. A deposit is formed by geological events that never repeat exactly, so the geomining conditions a mine has to work with — the shape and grade of the orebody, the strength of the rock, groundwater and rainfall, depth and distance from markets — change from one location to the next. A mine is also shaped by the society around it: the communities that live beside it, the livelihoods it supports or displaces, local expectations of jobs and services, and the culture through which those expectations are expressed. Above the local level sit national laws and regulations, fiscal regimes, local-content rules and the geopolitics of minerals, all of which decide who may mine, on what terms, and for whose benefit. For these reasons the mining industry of every country takes its character from the land and the nation in which it works. Mining in Tanzania is Tanzanian, just as mining in India, Australia, Chile or Canada carries the mark of those countries. Beneath this diversity, however, the basic principles are the same everywhere. Rock breaks, is loaded and hauled according to the same physics. Machines wear out and fail by the same mechanisms, and the same discipline of availability, utilisation and life-cycle cost decides whether they earn their keep. Sulphide rock exposed to air and water generates acid wherever it lies. Water obeys the same balance of inflows, storage and outflows on a gold mine at Geita as on a coal mine in Jharkhand. Accidents grow out of the same chains of latent conditions and failed barriers. And every mine, without exception, closes one day, leaving behind either land that can be used again or a liability for the generations that follow. One principle stands above all the others. We hold the earth in trust for those who come after us. Mining takes from the earth what took millions of years to form, and it cannot avoid disturbing land, water and living systems. What it can do — what it must do — is to minimise that disturbance, prevent harm that cannot be undone, and restore nature as fully as possible when the work is finished. A mine that produces cheaply today but leaves a poisoned river or an unstable tailings dam has not created wealth; it has borrowed from our grandchildren without their consent. This conviction is why the global mining community has developed shared standards: the Global Industry Standard on Tailings Management, ISO 55001 for asset management, ISO 45001 for occupational health and safety, the ICMM Mining Principles, the IFC Performance Standards and international good practice in mine closure. It is also why miners everywhere recognise one another. Those who have worked underground or on the benches of an open pit understand, without needing to explain, the difficulties of this profession: uncertain ground, harsh conditions, long distances, the constant presence of hazard, and the responsibility of working with the earth itself. This book stands at the meeting point of these two truths. It is written for Tanzanian mining personnel and it is grounded in Tanzanian reality: the Mining Act and its regulations, the Environmental Management Act, the work of the Mining Commission, NEMC, OSHA and the Basin Water Boards, the cases of Buzwagi, North Mara, Williamson and the artisanal goldfields of the Lake Zone, and the national ambitions of Vision 2025, Vision 2050 and the minerals value-addition agenda. Yet every chapter is built on principles that hold in any mining country. A Tanzanian engineer, geologist, inspector or administrator who masters them will be able to serve well not only at a Tanzanian mine, but wherever their career takes them — in the region, across Africa or anywhere in the world. Equally, a reader from another country will find here a careful account of how universal principles are put to work within one nation’s geology, society and law. The book is organised in seven chapters. It begins with Tanzania’s mining sector and its policy anchors (Chapter 1), and moves to legal compliance, mine safety and incident investigation (Chapter 2). It then covers surface mine operations and fleet productivity (Chapter 3), bulk material handling and life-cycle cost (Chapter 4), mineral processing, mine waste and tailings governance (Chapter 5), and mine water management (Chapter 6). It ends with mine closure, the digital mine and the reader’s own development pathway (Chapter 7). It is a learning manual rather than a textbook. Practising professionals already have Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 6

experience; what they need is a structure that turns that experience into capability. So every chapter asks readers to rate themselves before and after reading, to work through examples with their own site’s numbers, to complete field tasks at their own mine, and to test themselves against questions whose answers are given at the end. Readers direct their own learning and measure their own progress. The true test of the book will not be what readers remember from it, but what improves at their mines in the months after they read it. Acknowledgements This book would not have been written without the Indian Institute of Coal Management (IICM), Ranchi. IICM gave me the opportunity to interact with Tanzanian mining engineers, geologists, regulators and administrators through its training programme. Their questions, their candour about the problems they face, and their pride in their country’s mineral future pushed me to study the Tanzanian mining system — its geology, its laws, its institutions and its people — far more intensely than I would ever have done otherwise. I am grateful to IICM’s leadership, faculty and programme staff for that opportunity and for their support. I am equally grateful to the Tanzanian participants themselves. They were my teachers as much as my students, and much of what is useful in this book was learned from them. I also acknowledge, with gratitude and openness, the assistance of artificial intelligence in preparing this book. AI tools helped me to gather and organise the large body of session manuals, lecture notes, papers and reference material from which the book was compiled. They also helped to draft and edit text, check calculations, design figures and tables, and lay out the final document. This collaboration made it possible to produce in a short time a manual that would otherwise have taken many months. The responsibility for the content, the judgements and any errors remains entirely mine. I have tried to verify facts against their sources, and readers should confirm current laws and figures before acting on them. It is fitting, perhaps, that a book which asks mining professionals to embrace digital tools and AI in their work should itself have been made with their help, under human direction and judgement. Finally, I thank my colleagues in the Department of Mining Engineering and the Geospatial Academy at IIT Kharagpur, and the many mining professionals in India and abroad whose experience over the years is reflected in these pages. May this manual help those who mine Tanzania’s wealth to do so safely, efficiently and responsibly, and to leave the land fit for the generations to come. Prof. Khanindra Pathak · Kharagpur, October 2026 Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 7

How to Use This Book A book you direct This is not a textbook to be read once from cover to cover. It follows a heutagogical, or self-determined, approach to learning. In pedagogy the teacher decides what is learned; in andragogy the adult learner is helped to direct the learning; in heutagogy the learner decides what to learn, how, and why — and learns to change the way they think when a problem demands it. Practising mine personnel already have experience. What they need is a structure that turns experience into capability that improves their own operation. Two ideas from this tradition are used throughout. Capability, not only competence: competence is doing a known task well; capability is applying that skill in an unfamiliar situation — a new ore type, a broken supply chain, a rail line that is not yet built. Double-loop learning: single-loop learning fixes the belt that tore; double-loop learning asks why our procurement, inspection and data systems allowed it to tear. The parts of every chapter Table P.1 Elements of each chapter Element What it does What you do Learning outcomes State what you will be able to do Choose the two that matter most at your site Rate yourself now Five capability statements for the chapter Score each 1–5 before reading and note the evidence you could show today Core text, tables and figures Concepts, Tanzanian law and practice, international standards Read selectively; mark what is new to you Worked examples Calculations with real or illustrative numbers Repeat them with your site’s figures Tanzania boxes Cases and facts from Tanzanian operations Compare with your own site Field tasks Data to collect or people to interview at your site Complete within 30–90 days Self-test Ten questions and one or two problems Answer closed-book, then check Appendix B Re-rate and reflect The same five capability statements Score again; record what changed and why Box types Tanzania box — a case, statistic or legal point specific to Tanzanian mining. Field task — data to collect, people to interview or a decision to analyse at your own site. Note — a concept, rule of thumb or standard worth remembering. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 8

Caution — a safety or legal point, or a figure that must be verified before use. Worked example — a calculation set out step by step. How to assess yourself Self-assessment works at three levels, and each produces evidence you can show a supervisor, a mentor or an inspector. 1. Capability profile (Appendix A). Thirty-five capability statements — five per chapter. Rate each from 1 to 5 before you begin and again when you finish the chapter. A rise counts only if you can point to evidence from your own work: a calculation, a register, a map, a report. 2. Site maturity profile (Chapter 1, Section 1.7). Twenty indicators across waste, water, closure, compliance and digital systems, scored from 1 (absent or reactive) to 5 (leading). The profile shows where your site is strong and where your action plan should focus. 3. Self-tests (end of each chapter, answers in Appendix B). Seventy multiple-choice questions and eleven problems. Take each test once before reading the chapter and once after. Your normalised learning gain for the chapter is g = (post-test score − pre-test score) ÷ (maximum score − pre-test score) A gain of 0.3–0.7 is a medium gain; above 0.7 is high. Awareness usually improves faster than practical judgement, so pay particular attention to the problems and field tasks. Table P.2 Rating scale used for all capability statements Rating Descriptor What it looks like 1 Not yet I cannot yet explain or do this 2 Aware I recognise the idea but cannot apply it at my site 3 Can do with help I can apply it using this book and a colleague 4 Can do alone I have applied it at my site with evidence 5 Can teach and adapt I have applied it, verified the result and taught it to others Suggested reading routes Table P.3 Reading routes by role Role Core chapters Then Mine manager or senior engineer 1, 2, 3, 7 4, 5, 6 Plant, maintenance and logistics engineer 3, 4, 5 1, 6, 7 Environmental, water and closure officer 5, 6, 7 1, 2 Compliance, legal, safety and community staff 1, 2, 7 5, 6 Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 9

Role Core chapters Then Inspector (Mining Commission, NEMC, Basin Water Board, OSHA) 1, 2, 5, 6 7, 3 Faculty and trainers All, in order Appendices Small-scale mining leader 1, 2, 5 (Sections 5.7–5.8) 7 (closure) Currency of facts. Sector statistics are drawn from Government statements and press reports of 2025–2026, and from published studies cited in each chapter. Tanzanian laws and regulations are amended frequently. Before acting on any legal provision, confirm the current gazetted text through TanzLII, the Mining Commission, NEMC, OSHA or your Basin Water Board. Costs in worked examples are illustrative unless a source is given; replace them with your site’s data. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 10

Abbreviations Table P.4 Abbreviations used in this book Term Meaning Term Meaning ABA Acid–base accounting LCC Life-cycle cost AMD/ ARD Acid mine / rock drainage LGA Local Government Authority ANC Acid neutralising capacity MA, UA, E Mechanical availability, use of availability, operating efficiency ASGM / ASM Artisanal and small-scale (gold) mining MCP Mine Closure Plan BMH Bulk material handling ML / PML / SML Mining / Primary Mining / Special Mining Licence CIL / CIP Carbon-in-leach / carbon-in-pulp MPA Maximum potential acidity CMMS / EAM Computerised maintenance / enterprise asset management system NAF / PAF Non-acid forming / potentially acid forming CSR Corporate social responsibility NAG / NAPP Net acid generation / net acid producing potential EIA Environmental Impact Assessment NEMC National Environment Management Council EMA Environmental Management Act, Cap. 191 NMCC National Mine Closure Committee EoR Engineer of Record NORM Naturally occurring radioactive material FMC First Mile Connectivity (India) OEE Overall equipment effectiveness GCLA Government Chemist Laboratory Authority OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Authority GISTM Global Industry Standard on Tailings Management RCM Reliability-centred maintenance GST Geological Survey of Tanzania SGR Standard Gauge Railway ICMM International Council on Mining and Metals STAMICO State Mining Corporation IPCC In-pit crushing and conveying TAEC Tanzania Atomic Energy Commission InSAR Satellite radar interferometry TARP Trigger action response plan ISO 55001 Asset management system standard TSF Tailings storage facility Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 11

Term Meaning Term Meaning VSD Variable speed drive WAD Weak-acid-dissociable (cyanide) Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 12

1 Tanzania’s Mining Sector: Context, Policy Anchors and the Integrated Mine A mine’s waste, water, closure, legal and data decisions are one system. Treating them separately makes each look cheaper today and makes the whole mine more expensive and riskier over its life. This chapter gives every reader the same starting picture: where the sector stands, which national policies reach the mine site, how the parts of a modern mine interact, and where your own site stands today. 1.1 Learning outcomes and self-rating After working through this chapter you should be able to: 1. Describe Tanzania’s minerals sector using its key indicators and explain what they imply for skills. 2. Trace the cascade from national vision and sector strategy down to obligations at a mine site. 3. Explain the fiscal and ownership arrangements that shape every Tanzanian mining organisation. 4. Use the integrated framework to show how one operational decision affects waste, water, closure, compliance and data. 5. Assess the maturity of your own site in five areas and produce a baseline profile. Rate yourself now (1–5) and note your evidence C1.1 I can describe the current profile of Tanzania’s minerals sector with figures.▪ C1.2 I can name the national policy anchors that shape my site and say what each asks of it.▪ C1.3 I can explain state participation, royalties and local content as they affect my organisation.▪ C1.4 I can trace a single site decision through waste, water, closure, compliance and data.▪ C1.5 I know my site’s maturity in each of the five areas and which area is weakest.▪ 1.2 The sector at a glance Mining’s share of Tanzania’s GDP rose from 9.1 per cent in 2023 to 10.1 per cent in 2024, meeting the Vision 2025 target of 10 per cent a year early, and averaged about 11.9 per cent over the first three quarters of 2025. In June 2026 the National Bureau of Statistics moved the GDP base year from 2015 to 2019; on the new base mining and quarrying was 10.3 per cent of GDP in 2025, so shares on the two bases should not be compared directly. Minerals accounted for about 52.6 per cent of goods exports in 2025, up from 45.2 per cent in 2024. Mineral export earnings rose from US$4.12 billion to US$5.40 billion, of which gold was US$4.75 billion — about 88 per cent. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 13

Figure 1.1 Mining’s share of GDP and of exports. Source: Ministry of Minerals figures reported in 2025–2026. Table 1.1 Key indicators of Tanzania’s minerals sector Indicator Value What it means for people and skills Contribution to GDP 9.1% (2023) → 10.1% (2024) → about 11.9% average Jan–Sep 2025 (2015 base); 10.3% for 2025 on the 2019 base The sector is now a pillar of the economy and needs a matching skills base Share of goods exports 52.6% in 2025 (45.2% in 2024); gold about 88% of mineral exports Operational and environmental reliability is a national economic issue Mineral export value US$5.40 billion in 2025, up 31% Larger operations, larger waste and water footprints Ministry of Minerals collections TZS 1.394 trillion in 2025/26, 16% above target Revenue depends on credible production data, assaying and reporting FDI stock in mining US$9.79 billion (2024) Investors expect international standards to be met by local staff Local participation About 97% of mining jobs held by Tanzanians; about 88% of procurement local The workforce is local; the gap is depth of specialised and managerial competence Small-scale mining 8,878 small-scale licences issued July 2025–March 2026 A very large population needing basic safety, waste, mercury and water skills Critical-mineral licences 454 licences for graphite, nickel, cobalt, lithium, heavy mineral sands and rare earths, July 2025– March 2026 New commodities bring new processing, waste and water problems Geoscience coverage High-resolution airborne survey 16% → 34% (in progress); Mining Vision 2030 target at least 50% New discoveries will create new mines and new training demand Investment attractiveness Fraser Institute 2025: 4th in Africa, 34th globally Depends on regulatory predictability and competent administration Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 14

Two cautions apply when reading these numbers. Much of the 2025 rise in export value is a price effect: gold averaged about US$4,190 per ounce between July 2025 and March 2026 against about US$2,656 a year earlier, while physical gold output has been roughly 50–54 tonnes a year since 2021/22. And the Ministry’s collections exclude corporate income tax and other taxes collected by the Tanzania Revenue Authority, so they understate mining’s total fiscal contribution. Five structural shifts Table 1.2 Structural shifts in the sector and what they demand of people Shift Evidence Skills implication From gold- dominated to diversified 454 critical-mineral licences in nine months; Kabanga nickel, Mahenge and Lindi graphite, Ngualla rare earths, Panda Hill niobium in the pipeline New process chemistry, waste and water characteristics, closure challenges From foreign-led to locally owned and staffed About 97% of jobs Tanzanian; about 88% local procurement; 20 categories of goods and services reserved for wholly Tanzanian firms Tanzanian professionals now carry senior technical and managerial responsibility From few large mines to many licences 8,878 small-scale licences in nine months Mass training in safe excavation, mercury-free processing and water; inspector capacity From limited to expanding geoscience Survey coverage rising from 16% towards 34%; target at least 50% by 2030 A pipeline of projects needing EIA, closure planning and permitting skills From paper to digital administration Mining Commission procuring a minerals database, XRF analysers and inspection equipment; Digital Economy Strategic Framework 2024–2034 Data capture, reporting integrity and digital tools at site and regulator level The resource base and the project pipeline Most of Tanzania’s gold comes from the Archaean greenstone belts around Lake Victoria, with further production in the Lupa and Songwe areas of the south-west. The large-scale operations include Geita, North Mara and Bulyanhulu — the latter two operated through the Twiga Minerals joint venture between Barrick and the Government — together with New Luika, Stamigold and a very large artisanal and small-scale sector. Tanzanite is mined commercially only in the Mererani hills; diamonds at Williamson, Mwadui; coal in the southern coalfields; and graphite, nickel, rare earths and mineral sands are moving towards production. Table 1.3 Selected strategic mineral projects Project Commodity Standing (October 2026) Kabanga (Kagera) Nickel, copper, cobalt Feasibility study July 2025: 52.2 Mt reserve at 1.98% Ni, 18-year life, pre-production capex US$942 million; final investment decision expected 2027, pending amendment of the Framework Agreement Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 15

Project Commodity Standing (October 2026) Mahenge (Morogoro) Graphite Early works (access roads, earthworks, resettlement) nearing completion in mid-2026; construction awaits full funding and investment decision Ngualla (Songwe) Rare earth elements Proven reserve of 18.5 Mt at 4.8% TREO; operator now controlled by Shenghe Resources Nachu (Lindi) Graphite Permitted, bankable-feasibility stage; acquisition announced April 2026 Epanko (Morogoro) Graphite About 0.9 Mt of tailings a year expected in the first decade; tailings reuse study agreed in 2026 Mchuchuma– Liganga (Njombe) Coal, iron ore Integrated coal, power, iron ore and steel project planned around a 3 Mtpa coal mine A UONGOZI Institute study of six strategic minerals found that Tanzania had no operating smelting or refining capacity for them, and identified this as the main obstacle to retaining value in the country. Building competitive refining and metallurgical industry demands capabilities well beyond extraction — the central theme of this book. 1.3 National policy anchors Every line in a permit or licence can be traced up to a national objective. Figure 1.2 shows the cascade. Each level is narrower and more specific than the one above it, and each draws its authority from the level above. Figure 1.2 The policy cascade from national vision to site obligation Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 16

Table 1.4 National policy anchors and what each asks of a mine site Anchor Core intent What it asks of a mine site Development Vision 2050 (successor to Vision 2025) and the Fourth Five-Year Development Plan (2026/27–2030/31) Long-term economic transformation; mining as a driver of industrialisation and value addition Contribute to value addition and linkages; operate so growth is sustained, not borrowed from the future Mineral Policy of Tanzania (2009) Integrate mining with the wider economy; increase Tanzanian participation; protect environment and safety; formalise small-scale mining Local content, CSR, small-scale support, environmental and safety duties Mining Vision 2030, “Madini ni Maisha na Utajiri” (Mining is Life and Wealth) Five pillars: geoscience information; legal and institutional framework; linkage with other sectors; small- scale mining development; environmental management Responsible, inclusive growth; environmental performance treated as seriously as revenue National Environmental Policy (2021) Pollution prevention; sustainable use of resources; polluter pays EIA conditions, audits, waste and water controls National Occupational Health and Safety Policy (2010) Prevention-focused workplace safety Registration, risk assessment, accident notification National Water Policy (2002) Water as a shared resource managed at basin level Water use and discharge permits Digital Economy Strategic Framework 2024–2034 Digital infrastructure, skills, data protection and cybersecurity Reliable digital reporting; lawful handling of worker and community data The legal instruments that turn these anchors into duties — the Mining Act, the Natural Wealth and Resources Acts, the Environmental Management Act, the water, safety and data protection laws and their regulations — are set out in Chapter 2. Three messages from the anchors are worth carrying through the book: 1. Policy is ambitious and has delivered results; the constraint now is implementation capacity in companies and in Government. 2. Understanding the purpose behind an obligation makes compliance smarter, not just faster. 3. Obligations reach a mine through several regulators. None of them sees the whole picture — which is why the site must. 1.4 Ownership, fiscal terms and local content Tanzanian mining governance has moved from a framework oriented to private investment (Mining Act, 1998) towards one emphasising state participation, value addition, revenue mobilisation and local content. The Mining Act, 2010 (Cap. 123, R.E. 2019) and the 2017 amendments created the Mining Commission, raised royalty rates, introduced mandatory state equity and established regulated mineral markets. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 17

Table 1.5 Ownership and fiscal arrangements that shape every mining organisation Arrangement Provision Practical effect at the mine Free-carried interest Holders of a Mining Licence or Special Mining Licence must give the Government a non-dilutable free- carried interest of at least 16%; the Mining (State Participation) Regulations, 2020 allow it to rise towards 50% in proportion to tax incentives The state is a co-owner inside the company, not only a regulator above it Natural Wealth and Resources Acts, 2017 Permanent sovereignty over natural resources; review of unconscionable contract terms; disputes settled in Tanzania; earnings retained in Tanzanian banks Shapes contracts, banking and dispute strategy Royalties and local gold sales Finance Act 2022 cut royalty on gold sold to domestic refineries from 6% to 4%; a 2024 amendment requires at least 20% of gold to be sold to the Bank of Tanzania through licensed domestic refineries Gold accounting, product flow and documentation must be precise Beneficiation Export of unprocessed concentrates restricted since 2017; Mwanza refinery commissioned (reported capacity about 480 kg/day) Plant product (doré or concentrate) and its destination are regulated Local content Mining (Local Content) Regulations 2018, amended by GN 479 of 2022 (suppliers within scope, quarterly reporting) and GN 563 of 2025 (joint- venture requirements for non- indigenous suppliers); 20 reserved categories Local content plans, succession plans, supplier development and reporting CSR Mining (CSR) Regulations, 2023: CSR plans agreed with host Local Government Authorities Community investment planned and reported with the council Royalty rates change. Specific rates and exceptions have changed several times since 2017. Do not quote older schedules as current law without checking later Finance Acts and mineral-specific exceptions. 1.5 The integrated framework Figure 1.3 shows the framework used throughout this book. Modern mine operations — planning, extraction, processing, maintenance and accounting for every tonne, litre and shilling — sit beneath the national policy anchors. Five disciplines make operations sustainable: waste, water, closure, legal compliance, and ICT and AI. Beneath them an integrating layer of data, risk registers, financial assurance, community engagement and asset management ties them together. The outcome sought is a mine that keeps its social licence, earns regulatory confidence, delivers a return on investment and leaves land that can be handed back. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 18

Figure 1.3 The integrated framework linking national policy, mine operations and the five disciplines Table 1.6 Why the five areas form one system Reason Explanation Example Shared physical flows Waste and water move together: tailings are mostly water; rain on waste rock becomes drainage Poorly placed acid-forming rock turns a water-quality problem into a closure cost Shared liabilities Every waste landform and contaminated water body becomes a closure obligation A tailings facility designed without closure in mind can double the final closure bill Shared regulators One activity may need Mining Commission, NEMC and Basin Water Board approvals Moving a discharge point can trigger an EIA variation and a new water permit Shared data The same measurements serve operations, compliance and closure One flow meter supports the water balance, permit reporting and the closure water model Shared money Savings in one area often move cost into closure or penalties Skipping progressive rehabilitation saves cash now but raises the bond and the final liability Table 1.7 Interaction matrix: how a decision in one area creates requirements in another (row influences column) From → To Waste Water Closure Compliance ICT and AI Waste — Acid-forming rock and tailings set water quality Waste landforms are the main closure cost Tailings safety and hazardous waste rules Needs tailings and waste tracking data Water Water recovery from tailings; dust control — Long-term treatment sets closure duration Abstraction and discharge permits Sensors and balance models Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 19

From → To Waste Water Closure Compliance ICT and AI Closure Dictates placement and cover design Sets post-closure water objectives — Plan approval and bond Rehabilitation tracked by drone and satellite Compliance Sets limits and reporting duties Sets permit conditions Requires plans, costs, bonds — Requires auditable records ICT and AI Early warning of tailings anomalies Forecasts deficits and exceedances Tracks progressive rehabilitation Automates registers and returns — Case for discussion — “The TSF is nearly full” A mid-life gold mine in the Lake Victoria goldfields processes about 3 million tonnes of ore a year. Its conventional tailings storage facility will reach capacity in 18 months. Option A is to raise the existing embankment by the upstream method: cheapest in capital and buildable with the mine’s own fleet. Option B is to install a thickener and deposit thickened tailings in a new cell: more capital, new instruments and new skills. A downstream village is already complaining about water quality in a seasonal stream, and the closure plan was last updated four years ago. (The mine is fictional; the situation is typical.) Before reading Figure 1.4, write one line per discipline for each option: what changes, which risk rises or falls, what cost appears now or later, which regulator is involved and what data would be needed. Figure 1.4 One decision, five consequences Evaluated by capital cost alone, Option A wins. Evaluated across the five areas and the life of the mine, the balance usually shifts to Option B. Upstream raises are the method most associated with catastrophic failures worldwide; thickening recovers more water, which matters both to the village and to dry-season supply; Option A leaves a larger, wetter landform to close, which the four-year-old closure plan almost certainly under-estimates; either option changes the approved design and may need approval from more than one regulator; and neither is safe without instruments, a data system and someone accountable for reading it. This is the integrated framework in action. 1.6 People, licence and ore: the social dimension The conventional account of mining strategy emphasises geology, metallurgy, capital, fiscal terms and regulation. Yet in Tanzania the variables that most often decide whether a mine prospers are human: whether surrounding villages grant a social licence to operate, whether artisanal miners see a large mine as Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 20

a neighbour or an encloser, whether a supervisor treats safety rules as real or ceremonial, and whether citizens believe the mineral wealth is being shared fairly. Table 1.8 The social–behavioural–strategic chain in Tanzanian mining Social condition Behaviour it produces Organisational response that works Host-village expectations over land, water and jobs Trust or mistrust; perceived fairness Co-designed CSR, village-level budgets, independent grievance mechanisms in Kiswahili Artisanal livelihoods on the same ground Competition, intrusion or cooperation Coexistence zones, buying and technical support, rights-respecting security Resource nationalism and memory of unequal deals Demand for a fair share Transparent partnership with the state; published benefit data Local content law Expectation of progression, not only jobs Supplier development; time-bound national succession plans Gold-price boom and production pressure Optimism bias; normalised risk-taking Visible safety leadership; stop-work authority; incentive redesign Automation and digital tools Enthusiasm or fear for family income Reskilling with Tanzanian institutions; participatory design Fear of closure Resistance or adaptation Early closure planning; infrastructure handover; diversification Tanzanian lessons on social licence ▪ North Mara. Years of conflict over land, compensation, intrusion and security conduct were followed by large community investment and a Tanzanian general manager. Residents nevertheless won a High Court challenge to the regulatory rule that split CSR resources 40% to villages and 60% to local government authorities. Spending improves a relationship; voice and control over decisions matter as much as money. ▪ Mererani. The perimeter wall completed around the tanzanite blocks in 2018, with controlled entry and on-site trading, changed the incentives and visibility of every miner and trader. When the state redefines the rules of a mineral economy, organisations that adapt early keep their place. ▪ Mineral trading centres (from 2019). Formal gold flows and royalty collection rose where the legal channel was made easier and fairer than the informal one. Formalisation succeeds when it offers miners a better deal, not only a legal obligation. ▪ Buzwagi. The conversion of the closed mine into a Special Economic Zone treats closure as the start of a new local economy (Chapter 7). Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) is the sector’s largest social fact. Estimates of the number of people who earn a living from it range from about 0.7 million in the background study to the national mercury action plan to 1.2–1.5 million in more recent official and research figures, well over 90 per cent of the mining workforce. Field mapping of hundreds of sites has found that ASM governance is more organised than its reputation suggests, and that outright conflict between artisanal miners and villages is less common than the conflicts around large mines. For large operators this is a strategic insight: artisanal miners are an organised constituency that can be engaged through associations such as FEMATA, TAWOMA and regional miners’ associations, not merely a security problem. Inside organisations, four behavioural traps recur: optimism bias (accidents happen to others), normalisation of deviance (shortcuts accepted because nothing went wrong last time), boom-time short- termism (high gold prices discount closure and community obligations that fall due tomorrow) and Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 21

imported templates (a head-office social model applied without testing it against Tanzanian village realities). Chapter 2 returns to these when it discusses incident investigation. 1.7 Your site’s maturity profile The final step of this chapter is to measure where your own site — or, for regulators, a site you know well or your own institution’s capability to regulate — stands today. Score each indicator from 1 to 5 using the descriptors (2 and 4 lie between those shown), then average each area. Table 1.9 Maturity levels Level Name General description 1 Absent or reactive No system; action only after a problem or an inspection 2 Basic Some practices exist but depend on individuals; records incomplete 3 Defined Documented procedures followed routinely; responsibilities assigned 4 Managed Performance measured against targets; data reviewed by management; actions tracked 5 Leading Integrated with other areas; continuous improvement; independently verified Table 1.10 Site maturity self-assessment (score each indicator 1–5) Area Indicator Level 1 Level 3 Level 5 Score Waste Waste rock characterisation No geochemical testing Main units tested; placement rules exist Block-model classification; encapsulation verified Waste Tailings governance No named responsibility Engineer of Record; operating manual; routine monitoring Full GISTM alignment; independent review; disclosure Waste Hazardous non-process waste Mixed disposal; no records Segregation at source; licensed transporters Full manifest tracking; recycling targets met Waste Placement and reuse Waste dumped where convenient Dump design followed; some backfill Waste placed to final landform; reuse markets Water Site water balance None Monthly spreadsheet; some flows metered Calibrated model; all major flows metered; forecasts used Water Monitoring programme Occasional sampling Scheduled surface and groundwater monitoring Real-time key parameters; trends reviewed Water Permit compliance Permits unclear or expired All permits valid; most samples compliant 100% compliant; early- warning triggers Water Recycling and climate planning No recycle target; no drought or flood plan Recycle measured; basic storm design High recycle; scenario- tested plans Closure Closure plan currency No plan or plan more than 5 years old Progressive plan updated within 3 years Updated annually; integrated with mine plan Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 22

Area Indicator Level 1 Level 3 Level 5 Score Closure Cost estimate and bond No estimate Estimate exists; bond posted Third-party basis; independently reviewed; adequate Closure Progressive rehabilitation None Some areas each year Annual targets met; trials inform design Closure End land use and completion criteria Not discussed Land use proposed; some criteria Agreed with stakeholders; measured Compliance Compliance register None Register for main permits All laws; owners assigned; audited Compliance Permit and reporting calendar Deadlines often missed Calendar kept; most met Automated reminders; none missed Compliance Local content and CSR Absent or token Plans submitted and reported Targets exceeded; CSR linked to closure Compliance Inspection findings Not tracked Logged; most closed Root-cause analysis; all closed on time Digital Data capture Mostly paper Mostly spreadsheets Automated from sensors and systems Digital Integration and platform Disconnected files Some systems linked Single platform; standard definitions Digital Monitoring and analytics None Dashboards for key areas Predictive analytics with human approval Digital Data governance, cyber and skills No policy; few skilled staff Basic policies; some trained staff Data-protection compliant; in-house analytics Figure 1.5 Example of a completed baseline profile with a 90-day target Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 23

Table 1.11 Interpreting the profile Area average Interpretation Implication for your action plan Below 2.0 Critical gap Priority area; aim to establish a basic system 2.0–2.9 Developing Formalise and document; assign clear ownership 3.0–3.9 Established Introduce targets, measurement and management review 4.0 and above Advanced Integrate with other areas; share practice; seek verification In the example in Figure 1.5 the site is strongest in compliance (3.0) and weakest in closure (1.5) and digital systems (1.6). This is a typical pattern: obligations that are inspected regularly receive attention; those whose consequences lie years ahead do not. The interaction matrix shows that closure and data are exactly the areas that decide long-term cost. Field tasks for Chapter 1 ▪ Site position card (7 days). Write down your site’s commodity, licence type and tonnage, life-of-mine stage, ownership, main receiving environment, nearest communities and their water source, and the single biggest risk you see across the five areas. ▪ Baseline profile (14 days). Complete Table 1.10 with one colleague from another department. Where you disagree, find the evidence that settles it. ▪ One decision traced (30 days). Take one real decision made at your site in the last year. Trace it through the five areas using Table 1.7. Which consequence was not considered when it was made? 1.8 Key points Mining is now about a tenth of Tanzania’s GDP and over half of goods exports, but earnings depend▪ heavily on gold and its price. The policy framework has delivered results; the binding constraint is the number of people who can▪ design, review, operate and enforce demanding technical systems. The state is a co-owner as well as a regulator; local content and CSR are legal duties with a social purpose.▪ Waste, water, closure, compliance and data form one system; decisions made in one area move cost and▪ risk into the others. Social licence depends on voice and fairness as much as on spending.▪ 1.9 Self-test 1 1. Mining’s share of Tanzania’s GDP in 2024 (2015 base) was about: (a) 3.7% (b) 6.5% (c) 10.1% (d) 18.0% 2. In 2025 minerals accounted for about what share of goods exports? (a) 20% (b) 35% (c) just over 50% (d) 80% 3. The Mining Vision 2030 target for high-resolution geoscience coverage is: (a) 16% (b) 34% (c) at least 50% (d) 100% 4. Which statement about local participation is most accurate? (a) Most jobs are held by expatriates (b) About 97% of jobs are held by Tanzanians; the gap is depth of specialised skills (c) Local procurement is below 20% (d) No categories are reserved for Tanzanian firms 5. The minimum free-carried interest of the Government in a Mining or Special Mining Licence company is: (a) 5% (b) 10% (c) 16% (d) 51% Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 24

6. The Natural Wealth and Resources (Permanent Sovereignty) Act, 2017 requires among other things that: (a) disputes over natural resources be settled in Tanzania (b) all mines be State- owned (c) royalties be abolished (d) foreign companies cannot hold mineral rights 7. Much of the rise in mineral export value in 2025 is explained by: (a) a doubling of gold tonnage (b) higher gold prices (c) new nickel exports (d) coal exports to Europe 8. In the “TSF is nearly full” case, the upstream raise is cheapest because: (a) it uses least embankment fill and the mine’s own fleet (b) it needs no permit (c) it recovers most water (d) GISTM requires it 9. According to the interaction matrix, which area most directly sets closure duration through long- term treatment? (a) Compliance (b) Water (c) ICT (d) Local content 10. A site scoring 1.5 in closure on the maturity profile should: (a) seek independent verification (b) treat closure as a priority area and establish a basic system (c) ignore closure until final years (d) integrate closure with ICT first Problem 1.1 Using Table 1.1, calculate gold’s share of mineral export earnings in 2024 (gold US$3.42 billion; minerals US$4.12 billion) and 2025. What does the change imply for the sector’s exposure to price risk? Problem 1.2 Your baseline scores are: waste 2.0, water 1.8, closure 1.5, compliance 3.0, digital 1.6. Choose the two priority areas for a 90-day plan and justify the choice using Table 1.7. Re-rate and reflect. Score C1.1–C1.5 again. Which rating rose most, and what evidence supports it? What assumption about your site did this chapter make you question? Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 25

2 Legal Compliance, Mine Safety and Incident Investigation A mine in Tanzania answers to many laws and many regulators at once. No regulator sees the whole picture; only the site can. This chapter shows how to map every obligation to its source, its regulator, its owner and its evidence; how mine safety and accident notification work in Tanzanian law; and how to investigate an incident so that the system, not only the person nearest the event, is changed. 2.1 Learning outcomes and self-rating 1. Name the main laws, regulations and policies that govern a Tanzanian mine and the regulator responsible for each. 2. Trace a site obligation back to its regulation, Act and policy, and explain why it exists. 3. Build a compliance register and annual calendar with owners and evidence. 4. State the notification duties after a mining accident and the emergency-preparedness duties of the mine manager. 5. Run a proportionate incident investigation and write corrective actions that change the system. Rate yourself now (1–5) and note your evidence C2.1 I can name the main national laws and regulations that govern my site.▪ C2.2 I can trace a specific site obligation back to the law and policy it comes from, and explain why it▪ exists. C2.3 I know which regulator is responsible for each of my site’s main obligations.▪ C2.4 I know who at my site owns each major obligation and what evidence proves compliance.▪ C2.5 I can lead an incident investigation from scene control to verified corrective action.▪ 2.2 The legal and institutional architecture Mine safety, environment, water, labour and data are regulated through two systems that meet at the mine gate. The mining law is administered by the Ministry of Minerals and the Mining Commission. The general laws on environment, water, occupational safety, chemicals, compensation and data are administered by other ministries and authorities. Over all of them sit the 2017 natural wealth laws. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 26

Figure 2.1 Institutional and legal architecture governing a Tanzanian mine Table 2.1 The law layer, grouped by what it protects Domain Principal Acts Key subsidiary instruments for a mine Mineral rights Mining Act, Cap. 123 (2010, R.E. 2019, amended 2017 and later) Mining (Mineral Rights) Regulations 2018; licence conditions; returns; royalties and mineral trading rules National interest Natural Wealth and Resources (Permanent Sovereignty) Act 2017; Contracts (Review and Re-negotiation of Unconscionable Terms) Act 2017; Tanzania Extractive Industries (Transparency and Accountability) Act 2015 State Participation Regulations 2020; TEITI disclosures Local benefit Mining Act (local content s.102; CSR s.105) Mining (Local Content) Regulations 2018 as amended (GN 479 of 2022; GN 563 of 2025); Mining (CSR) Regulations 2023 Mine safety and health Mining Act; Occupational Health and Safety Act No. 5 of 2003 Mining (Safety, Occupational Health and Environmental Protection) Regulations 2010; OHS Rules incl. Notification of Occupational Diseases, Injuries and Dangerous Occurrences Rules 2016 Small-scale mining Mining Act Mining (Technical Support to Small Scale Miners) Regulations 2025 Explosives, chemicals, radiation Explosives Act; Industrial and Consumer Chemicals (Management and Control) Act 2003; Atomic Energy Act 2003 Explosives licences and magazine rules; cyanide and mercury registration; radiation source licences; NORM rules Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 27

Domain Principal Acts Key subsidiary instruments for a mine Environment Environmental Management Act, Cap. 191 (2004, amended 2025) EIA and Audit Regulations (amended 2018); Water Quality Standards Regulations 2007; Hazardous Waste Control and Management Regulations 2021 (GN 389); Environmental Performance Bond Regulations 2024 (GN 369) Closure Mining Act; EMA Mine Closure Guidelines 2019 (s.19 of the Mining Act); rehabilitation bond Water Water Resources Management Act 2009 (Cap. 331) Water use, discharge and groundwater permits from Basin Water Boards Workforce Employment and Labour Relations Act 2004; Workers’ Compensation Act 2008 Workers’ Compensation Regulations 2016 Emergencies Fire and Rescue Force Act; Disaster Management Act 2022 Fire certificates; district and regional co- ordination Data Personal Data Protection Act 2022 Lawful processing of worker and community data Table 2.2 Regulators and what they ask to see Regulator Obligations it oversees at a mine Evidence it typically asks for Mining Commission (Tume ya Madini): Chief Inspector of Mines, Regional and Resident Mines Officers Licence conditions, mine safety, mine plans, tailings approvals, closure, local content, CSR, royalty and mineral trade, small-scale support Mine plans, rescue plan, accident register, inspection records, local content and CSR reports, production and sales records OSHA (Prime Minister’s Office – Labour) Workplace registration, general OHS duties, lifting equipment, pressure vessels, medical examinations, accident notification Registration certificate, risk assessments, test certificates, medical records, notification forms NEMC (Vice President’s Office – Environment) EIA conditions, environmental audits, pollution control, hazardous waste, performance bonds EIA certificate, audit reports, monitoring data, waste manifests Basin Water Boards (e.g. Lake Victoria, Pangani, Rufiji) and Ministry of Water Abstraction, discharge, groundwater; operating permits for tailings dams Permits, meter readings, discharge quality results, dam safety records Government Chemist Laboratory Authority Cyanide, mercury and other industrial chemicals Registration, import permits, storage inspections Tanzania Atomic Energy Commission Radiation sources (density gauges, XRF); NORM Source licences, dose records, radiation safety officer Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 28

Regulator Obligations it oversees at a mine Evidence it typically asks for Explosives authorities and Police Explosives licences, magazines, transport, loss or theft Licences, magazine register, daily reconciliation Workers’ Compensation Fund Registration, contributions, injury and disease claims Contribution receipts, claim forms Host Local Government Authority CSR plan, service levy, local permits Signed CSR agreement, project reports, levy receipts Fire and Rescue Force; Disaster Management Fire safety; mass-casualty co- ordination Fire certificate; emergency plans TRA and TEITI Taxes; payment disclosure Returns; reconciliation templates Personal Data Protection Commission Worker monitoring, biometrics, CCTV, AI systems Lawful basis; data protection measures Table 2.3 Where regulators overlap at a mine site Activity at the site Mining Commission NEMC Basin Water Board Others Discharging treated water Licence conditions Effluent standards; EIA conditions Discharge permit LGA (community concerns) Raising a tailings dam Approval of mine plan change EIA variation; audit Dam operating permit; storage changes OSHA (worker safety) Hiring a foreign specialist Local content plan; succession — — Labour and immigration Installing CCTV with face recognition — — — Personal Data Protection Commission Closing a waste dump Closure plan; NMCC Environmental standards Post-closure drainage LGA (land use) Funding a community water project CSR plan — Permit if abstraction Host LGA; water utility 2.3 Tracing an obligation: the obligation chain Every obligation at a site has a family tree. It begins with a national choice (vision and policy); Parliament turns that choice into binding duties (Acts); the Minister adds detail (regulations, rules, standards, guidelines); the regulator applies it to the site (licence, permit and certificate conditions); the site turns it into daily work (plans and procedures), with a named owner and evidence that it is done and working. If you can walk this chain up and down for any obligation, you can comply intelligently rather than mechanically. To trace an obligation, start from something you do at work and ask six questions: What exactly do we do? Which site document tells us to do it? Which licence, permit or certificate condition requires it? Which regulation gives the detail? Which Act creates the duty? Which policy explains the national purpose? If you get stuck at any level, you have found a learning gap — or a compliance gap. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 29

Figure 2.2 Tracing two site obligations back to the national vision Table 2.4 Reference traces for common obligations Site obligation Regulation or guideline Act Policy Prepare, file and test a mine rescue plan; train rescue teams Mining safety regulations 2010 (emergency preparedness) Mining Act Mineral Policy; OHS Policy Notify reportable accidents within 24 h; prescribed form within 7 days OHS Notification Rules 2016 OHS Act 2003 National OHS Policy Hold an EIA certificate and carry out environmental audits EIA and Audit Regulations (amended 2018) EMA National Environmental Policy Abstract and discharge water only under permit Water permit regulations Water Resources Management Act 2009 National Water Policy Use licensed carriers and manifests for hazardous waste Hazardous Waste Regulations 2021 EMA National Environmental Policy Keep explosives in a licensed magazine; licensed shotfirers only Explosives regulations Explosives Act Mineral Policy (safety) Submit and implement a local content plan Local Content Regulations 2018 as amended Mining Act Mineral Policy; Vision 2050 Agree and fund a CSR plan with the host LGA CSR Regulations 2023 Mining Act Mineral Policy; Mining Vision 2030 Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 30

Site obligation Regulation or guideline Act Policy Maintain a Mine Closure Plan and rehabilitation bond Mine Closure Guidelines 2019 Mining Act; EMA Mineral Policy; Mining Vision 2030 Sell at least 20% of gold through domestic refineries to the Bank of Tanzania Mining Act s.59 (2024 amendment) Mining Act Vision 2050 (value addition) Why the obligation exists People comply better, and design better controls, when they understand purpose. Every obligation exists to control a risk, protect someone or something, or share a benefit — and many were written after something went wrong. Table 2.5 The five purpose questions applied to one obligation Purpose question Example: water discharge permit What risk does it control? Contamination of rivers and groundwater by metals, cyanide and sediment Who or what does it protect? Downstream villages, livestock, fisheries, Lake Victoria and other users What happened when it was ignored? In 2019 NEMC issued an Environmental Protection Order and fines (TZS 300 million, then TZS 5.6 billion) over seepage from the North Mara tailings facility What does it enable for the mine? Continued operation, community trust, access to finance and buyers What would a better control look like? Reduce discharge at source by recycling; seepage interception; continuous monitoring shared with the Basin Water Board Table 2.6 Purposes behind major obligations Obligation Why it exists Tanzanian context Mine rescue plan and trained teams Trapped miners survive only if rescue is fast, equipped and trained Mererani flood 2008 (at least 65 dead); Nyandolwa shaft collapse 2025 (25 trapped) Accident notification within 24 h Regulators must see the scene before evidence is lost; national data drive prevention The National Audit Office found accident data unreliable and many workplaces unregistered Closure plan and rehabilitation bond The public should not inherit unsafe pits or polluted water Legacy pits and shafts; Buzwagi and Golden Pride closures Local content plan Keep more mining value in Tanzania through jobs, skills and suppliers 2017 reforms; 20 reserved categories; 2025 joint-venture rules Explosives reconciliation Prevent theft, misuse and blasting accidents Mererani 2002: at least 39 deaths from carbon monoxide after a blast Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 31

Obligation Why it exists Tanzanian context Rain stop orders at small-scale sites Saturated ground collapses Bariadi 2024: 22 dead after mining in a restricted area 2.4 Obligations across the life of the mine Table 2.7 Compliance obligations by life-of-mine stage Stage Mining regime Environment and water Social and local content Data and reporting Exploration Prospecting licence; work programme; relinquishment Environmental protection plan Community engagement; land access Geological data submission Development SML/ML application; feasibility; mine plan EIA certificate; water permits; preliminary closure plan Resettlement and compensation; local content plan Cadastre records Operations Returns; royalties; inspections Annual audits; monitoring; permit renewals; progressive closure updates Local content and CSR reports; succession plans Monthly and quarterly returns; incident reports Closure Licence surrender Final closure plan approval by NMCC; post- closure monitoring Workforce transition; asset handover Completion reports; bond release 2.5 The compliance register and evidence An obligation without a named owner usually goes undone. A good site keeps one register that links every obligation to its source, regulator, owner, frequency and evidence, and a calendar that turns frequencies into dates. Ownership is clear at three levels: who is accountable (signs and answers to the regulator), who is responsible (does the work) and who must be consulted or informed. Table 2.8 Sample obligation register (typical owners; adapt to your site) Obligation Source Regulator Accountable Responsible Frequency Evidence Mine rescue plan and team Mining safety regs 2010 Mining Commission Mine Manager Safety Superintendent Plan yearly; team training quarterly Filed plan; training logs; drill reports Accident notification OHS Act; Notification Rules OSHA; Mining Commission Mine Manager Safety officer on duty Event-driven Time-stamped notices; forms; register EIA conditions and audit EMA; EIA and Audit Regs NEMC General Manager Environmental Superintendent Ongoing; audit as required Audit report; monitoring vs limits Water permits Water Resources Mgmt Act Basin Water Board General Manager Water engineer Monthly readings; renewal Valid permits; meter logs; lab results Hazardous waste Hazardous Waste Regs 2021 NEMC Environmental Superintendent Waste coordinator Each consignment Licensed carrier; manifests; disposal certificates Explosives magazine Explosives Act Minerals / Police Mine Manager Blasting supervisor Daily Licence; register; reconciliation Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 32

Obligation Source Regulator Accountable Responsible Frequency Evidence Local content plan Local Content Regs Mining Commission General Manager Supply chain, HR Annual plan; quarterly reports Approved plan; spend data; succession plans CSR plan CSR Regs 2023 LGA; Mining Commission General Manager Community relations Annual Signed agreement; completion reports Closure plan and bond Mining Act; Closure Guidelines Mining Commission (NMCC) General Manager Environment; finance Periodic review Approved plan; valid bond; rehab records Lifting equipment OHS Act and Rules OSHA Maintenance Manager Lifting coordinator Statutory intervals Test certificates; tags Table 2.9 Weak and strong evidence of compliance Weak evidence (shows it was written) Strong evidence (shows it works) A rescue plan exists in a file A drill report with times, gaps found and actions closed A water permit is framed on the wall A year of discharge results within limits, shared with the Basin Water Board A local content plan was submitted Spend data showing the Tanzanian share rising against target A procedure signed by the manager A field observation of the procedure followed on night shift A training attendance sheet A field competence assessment and a later re-check 2.6 Appraisal of policy implementation Trainees in companies and in Government must operate within the policy framework and help improve it. Table 2.10 summarises intent, strengths and implementation gaps as reported publicly; it is offered constructively and is not an official evaluation. Table 2.10 Appraisal of key policies Policy or strategy Strengths observed Implementation gaps Implication for people Vision 2025 → Vision 2050 Mining target met in 2024, a year early Value addition and linkages to manufacturing still limited Train for beneficiation and industrial linkages Mining Vision 2030 Clear numerical targets; survey coverage rising Environmental targets less quantified than revenue and survey targets Build environmental and closure capacity with new discoveries Mineral Policy 2009; 2017 reforms Revenue up more than fivefold over a decade; stronger oversight Early reforms introduced with limited consultation Consultative, evidence- based administration Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 33

Policy or strategy Strengths observed Implementation gaps Implication for people Local Content Regulations 2018 97% local employment; 88% local procurement; 20 reserved categories Supplier capability to meet technical standards; depth of senior technical roles Supplier development; succession and technical leadership CSR Regulations 2023 Clear process and dispute mechanism Projects not aligned with closure and long-term livelihoods Link CSR planning to post- mining land use Mine Closure Guidelines 2019 Aligned with international practice Limited capacity to review plans and cost estimates Priority training for NMCC members, inspectors and closure staff EMA and 2025 amendment Legal basis for EIA, audit, standards Monitoring and enforcement capacity across many sites Inspector training in tailings, water and closure audit Small-scale mining support Large licensing volume; STAMICO centres; 2025 technical support regulations Mercury use; unsafe practices Kiswahili extension on mercury-free methods, water and safety A governance finding: law on paper, practice at the site. Tanzania’s legal framework for mine waste and safety is broadly complete. The weaknesses lie in co-ordination between agencies, in data, and in field capacity. Examples include NORM in conventional mine waste (regulated only in general terms outside uranium, thorium and phosphate), the interaction between the mining rehabilitation bond and the 2024 EMA performance bond, and the reach of mercury rules among more than a million artisanal miners. The 2021 Resource Governance Index scored Tanzania’s mining sector 58 out of 100. 2.7 Mine safety in Tanzanian law Mine safety is regulated by both the Mining Commission (under the mining regulations) and OSHA (under the OHS Act). The mine manager carries the primary duty to identify hazards and implement reasonable, practical controls, and to appoint competent persons in writing. Table 2.11 Emergency-preparedness duties (Mining (Safety, Occupational Health and Environmental Protection) Regulations 2010) Duty under the 2010 mining safety regulations Requirement (summary) Mine rescue plan Prepared by the mine manager, filed with the Inspector of Mines, kept current and followed Rescue teams — underground One trained and equipped team for 11–49 underground workers; two teams for 50 or more; plan and equipment approved by the Inspector for fewer than 10 Rescue teams — open pit One team where more than 25 workers per shift, plus four rescue-trained people on shifts of more than ten Team competence At least six qualified members; valid rescue and first aid certificates; at least eight hours of practice together in each three-month period Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 34

Duty under the 2010 mining safety regulations Requirement (summary) Emergency training All workers trained and retrained annually in survival, rescue and self-rescue apparatus Fire fighting Equipment at headframes, plants, crusher stations, conveyors, pump stations and fuelling points; inspected at least quarterly Evacuation and warning Procedures posted above and below ground; warning system tested at least every 12 months Accidents and inquiries Accident register; notification of the Inspector; the Inspector investigates and reports Notification after an accident Life safety always comes first. Once people are safe, the mine manager notifies the authorities. Late or missing notification is an offence and destroys trust with regulators and communities. Table 2.12 Notification duties after a mining accident Authority When to notify Notes Inspector of Mines (Mining Commission) Without delay for deaths, serious injuries and prescribed dangerous occurrences; written report follows Preserve the scene for the Inspector’s inquiry OSHA (Chief Inspector) Within 24 hours by the quickest means; prescribed form within 7 days OHS Act 2003 and Notification Rules 2016 Police Immediately for any death and for loss or theft of explosives A criminal investigation or inquest may run in parallel Workers’ Compensation Fund Notice of accident and claim forms as prescribed Workers’ Compensation Regulations 2016 NEMC, GCLA, District/Regional Commissioner Environmental release, chemical exposure, mass- casualty event Disaster Management Act 2022 for large events Verify time limits. The OSHA limits above are from the OHS notification framework. Confirm the exact mining-regulation time limits, forms and contact points in your site legal register. Keep the name and telephone number of your Regional or Resident Mines Officer, OSHA zonal office and Basin Water Board office where the shift supervisor can find them at 2 a.m. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 35

Table 2.13 Classifying events Term (Kiswahili) Working meaning Implication Incident (tukio) Any undesired work-related event that caused or could have caused harm, damage or loss Record and screen for actual and potential consequence Accident (ajali) An incident that caused injury, ill health, damage or loss Investigate in proportion to risk; notify where required Near miss (tukio la nusura) Harm avoided by chance or by the last remaining barrier Report internally; high-potential near misses are warnings Dangerous occurrence (tukio la hatari) A prescribed serious event — ground collapse, inrush, uncontrolled explosion, hoisting failure, dam failure, major fire — whether or not anyone is hurt Statutory notification; preserve the scene High-potential incident Credible potential for one or more fatalities, whatever the actual outcome Level 3 investigation; independent review 2.8 Investigating incidents Purpose and investigation level An investigation exists to prevent recurrence, not to apportion blame. Accountability still matters, and deliberate violations or falsification may need separate processes. But the investigation must explain why the controls expected to prevent or limit the event were missing, weak, bypassed or poorly managed. A useful test: would another competent person, in the same system, with the same information, pressures and equipment, have made a similar error? If yes, fix the system. Table 2.14 Choosing the investigation level Level Typical trigger Leadership and method Tanzanian notification 1 Local Low actual and potential consequence Supervisor-led fact finding Internal register 2 Formal Moderate consequence or repeated event Manager-led team; timeline; barrier review OSHA if reportable; accident register 3 Major / high- potential Fatality, serious injury, major loss, or credible fatal potential Senior sponsor; trained lead investigator; ICAM or RCA; independent members Inspector of Mines, OSHA, Police (if death), WCF 4 Critical Multiple fatalities; collapse or flood; tailings failure; explosion Independent multidisciplinary inquiry co- ordinated with regulators As Level 3 plus District/Regional Commissioner, Disaster Management, NEMC/GCLA The process has eight connected phases: (1) response and notification; (2) planning and terms of reference; (3) evidence preservation and collection; (4) interviewing; (5) event reconstruction; (6) causal and barrier Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 36

analysis; (7) corrective-action design; (8) implementation, verification and learning. It is iterative: new evidence may send the team back to the timeline. Evidence and interviews Table 2.15 Evidence classes Evidence class Large-scale mine Small-scale or quarry site Physical Failed component, tyre, brake part, guard, cable, rock fragments, PPE Timber supports, ropes, ladders, windlass, pump, blasting remains, collapse profile Documentary SOPs, permits, risk assessments, shift reports, work orders, training records Licence and site plan, technical-support agreement, mines officer orders, worker lists Digital Fleet management and GPS, SCADA, proximity alarms, CCTV, slope radar, drone imagery, CMMS records Phone photos and videos, call logs, messages, TMA rainfall records Testimonial Operators, supervisors, maintainers, contractors, responders Pit owner, shaft workers, rope pullers, village leaders, responders Digital data are often decisive and are overwritten quickly; secure original files and time stamps within hours. Scene preservation must never cause a second accident: entering unstable ground or re-energising equipment needs its own risk assessment. After a shaft or pit collapse at a small-scale site, untrained community rescue attempts often cause secondary collapses — control access firmly. Interview witnesses one at a time, as soon as practicable, in the language they are most comfortable with — usually Kiswahili — using a neutral interpreter, not the witness’s supervisor. Begin with a free account: “Tafadhali tueleze kwa maneno yako mwenyewe kilichotokea” (“Please tell us, in your own words, what happened”). Ask neutral questions (“Describe how the truck was being driven”, not “Why was he driving recklessly?”), separate what was seen from what was later concluded, and read the account back for correction. Causal analysis: from contact event to organisation ICAM (Incident Cause Analysis Method) prevents the analysis from stopping at the last human action. Work down the layers, asking at each why the defence failed and what conditions made the action likely. Table 2.16 ICAM layers with a worked example ICAM layer Question Example: haul truck over a dump edge after rain Consequence What harm or loss? Truck rolled; operator seriously injured Absent or failed defences Which controls should have stopped it? Windrow below axle height; no dump inspection after rain; no spotter Individual or team actions What did people do? Operator reversed to the edge with three trucks queuing behind Task and environmental conditions What shaped those actions? Night shift, heavy rain, poor lighting, dozer reassigned, production pressure Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 37

ICAM layer Question Example: haul truck over a dump edge after rain Organisational factors What system conditions allowed this? No rain trigger in the dump inspection standard; dozer allocation not risk-assessed; contractor KPIs reward tonnes only Other tools complement ICAM. 5-Why suits simple chains; stop at a controllable system condition supported by evidence. Bow-tie barrier analysis maps threats, preventive barriers, the top event, mitigating barriers and consequences, and marks the critical controls. Change analysis compares the event with the normal condition: what changed in people, equipment, method, weather, contractor, schedule or supervision? Root-cause analysis under IEC 62740 provides a structured process and deliberately separates cause from liability. Bow-tie: shaft or pit-wall collapse at a small-scale gold site ▪ Threats: heavy rain and saturated ground; unsupported walls; undercutting and pillar robbing; blast vibration from nearby workings. ▪ Preventive barriers: rain stand-down rule with re-entry inspection; timbering or benching to an approved design; mine plan and technical-support visit (2025 regulations); blast control and claim-boundary survey. ▪ Mitigating barriers: head count at the shaft (tag board); second exit or refuge and communication rope; trained rescue team with access control; early call to Fire and Rescue and the district. ▪ Consequences: burial and fatalities; trapped miners and bad air; secondary collapse on rescuers; community harm and licence suspension. Labels such as “carelessness” or “operator error” are where analysis begins, not where it ends. Examine workload, fatigue, time pressure, competence, visibility, communication, conflicting goals, staffing and whether procedures were workable. In Tanzania, specific pressures recur: pay-by-find and food-ration arrangements that push artisanal miners into unsafe shafts; defying stop orders after a rich discovery; layered contracting that blurs who controls the work; rapid workforce growth on new projects; and procedures written only in English. Investigations also often reveal asset-management failures — deferred maintenance, scarce spares, poor out-of-service control — that Chapter 4 addresses. Tanzanian cases Table 2.17 Tanzanian incident cases Case What happened Key issues Question for discussion Mererani tanzanite flood (March 2008) Heavy rain flooded interconnected underground workings; about 66 reported trapped; at least 65 died. An earlier event (2002) killed at least 39 miners through carbon monoxide after a blast Surface water control; interconnected claims; escape and rescue; gas after blasting; pay-by-find Who owns flood and bad-air controls when several licence holders share connected workings? Bariadi, Simiyu (January 2024) Pit collapse after heavy rain in an area where work had been restricted; 22 dead; officials said a stop order had been defied Enforcement of stop orders; night work without inspection What would have made the stop order a stronger barrier? Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 38

Case What happened Key issues Question for discussion Nyandolwa, Shinyanga (August 2025) Shaft collapse trapped 25 miners; multi-day rescue recovered survivors and bodies; Mining Commission promised investigation and stricter enforcement Shaft support; tracking people underground; agency co-ordination Draft the terms of reference for a Level 4 inquiry Makuyuni quarry, Tanga (February 2026) Quarry walls collapsed, killing five men sand mining Undercut faces; no benching; no competent supervision Which three controls would most reduce quarry-face fatalities, and who verifies them? Corrective action and verification Table 2.18 Corrective actions on the hierarchy of controls Control level Large-scale mine example Small-scale or quarry example Weakness to watch Eliminate Relocate the dump away from soft ground Close an unstable shaft and backfill it May need redesign or capital Substitute Remote or automated method Open benching instead of deep narrow shafts New hazards Engineering Proximity detection, fail-safe brakes, berm to axle height, guards Engineered timber sets, shaft collar, diversion drains, ventilation fan Needs maintenance Administrative Traffic plan, permit to work, rain inspection trigger Rain stand-down, tag board, buddy system, blast re-entry wait Drifts under production pressure PPE Hi-vis clothing, gas monitors Helmets, harness, personal CO detector Last line of defence only Avoid “retrain the operator”, “take more care” or “follow procedure” unless the investigation found a real competence gap and explains why earlier training failed. Every action should be specific, risk-based, owned, time-bound and verifiable, and should be closed only on strong evidence (Table 2.9). Communicate learning through a one-page bulletin (Taarifa ya Mafunzo ya Usalama) in Kiswahili and English, shared through mines officers, associations and contractor networks so that learning crosses site boundaries. Field tasks for Chapter 2 ▪ Legal register check (14 days). Obtain your site’s legal register and licence. Compare with Table 2.1. Which instruments are missing? When was the register last updated? ▪ Three traces (30 days). Trace three obligations from your own job through all levels of the chain. Mark each link confirmed or unconfirmed. ▪ Regulator log (30 days). List every regulator visit or letter in the last 12 months, its findings and whether they were closed with evidence. ▪ Owner interview (45 days). Ask the owner of one obligation: what would you show an inspector tomorrow, and how do you know the control works? Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 39

▪ Emergency readiness (60 days). Check that the rescue plan is filed and current, teams have trained this quarter, and the notification contacts are posted. Run one notification drill. 2.9 Key points Many regulators reach the same site; only the site sees the whole picture, so it must keep one register▪ with owners and evidence. Every obligation can be traced to a purpose; knowing the purpose makes compliance smarter and▪ supports professional dialogue with regulators. Notify promptly — OSHA within 24 hours, the Inspector of Mines without delay — and preserve the▪ scene. Investigate to change the system: failed defences, task conditions and organisational factors, not only the▪ last human act. Close actions on evidence that the control works, not on evidence that a document was issued.▪ 2.10 Self-test 2 1. Which body houses the Chief Inspector of Mines? (a) NEMC (b) Mining Commission (c) WCF (d) GCLA 2. Under the OHS framework, an employer first notifies OSHA of a reportable accident within: (a) 24 hours (b) 7 days (c) 30 days (d) only when a claim is made 3. A permit to abstract water for a mine is obtained from: (a) the Mining Commission (b) TRA (c) the District Commissioner (d) the Basin Water Board 4. Under the 2010 regulations, an open-pit mine with more than 25 workers per shift must have: (a) a helicopter pad (b) a full-time doctor (c) at least one trained mine rescue team (d) no rescue arrangements 5. CSR plans under the 2023 regulations are agreed with: (a) the Bank of Tanzania (b) host Local Government Authorities (c) embassies (d) the Ports Authority 6. Installing CCTV with face recognition engages mainly: (a) the Mining Commission (b) the Basin Water Board (c) TRA (d) the Personal Data Protection Commission 7. The strongest evidence that a rescue plan works is: (a) a drill report with times, gaps and closed actions (b) the plan in a file (c) a signed cover page (d) a training attendance sheet 8. A truck tilts at a dump edge; no one is hurt; credible worst case is a fatal rollover. It is: (a) not an incident (b) a Level 1 matter (c) a high-potential incident for Level 3 investigation (d) a contractor matter only 9. “The operator made an error” is best treated as: (a) the root cause (b) the starting point for asking why (c) proof of recklessness (d) a reason to close the case 10. The 2025 amendment to the Local Content Regulations (GN 563) mainly: (a) abolished local content (b) set royalty rates (c) created NEMC (d) tightened requirements on non-indigenous suppliers, including joint ventures Problem 2.1 For your site, choose one obligation from Table 2.4. Complete its full chain: what you do; site document; permit condition; regulation (with GN number if known); Act; policy; owner; strong evidence. Identify one gap. Problem 2.2 A contractor’s haul truck has had a brake defect reported on two earlier shifts and is involved in a collision. Write five neutral interview questions and three corrective actions on the hierarchy of controls, with the evidence you would require to close each. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 40

Re-rate and reflect. Score C2.1–C2.5 again. Is there an obligation at your site that is met on paper but not in purpose? What would meeting its purpose look like? Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 41

3 Surface Mine Operations, Machinery and Productivity Machinery is the largest capital investment in most surface mines and the source of most of their operating cost. A mine does not control the gold price, the ore grade or the exchange rate. It does control how many tonnes each hour of each machine delivers, and what that hour costs. This chapter is about producing more tonnes per shilling — safely, and over the life of the fleet. 3.1 Learning outcomes and self-rating 1. Describe the classes of surface mining equipment and apply a structured process to select and match them. 2. Break a fleet’s calendar time into availability, utilisation and efficiency, and identify the largest loss. 3. Calculate bucket payload, passes, truck cycle time, rolling and grade resistance, match factor and fleet size for dry and wet seasons. 4. Calculate owning and operating cost per hour and per tonne, and compare investment options by cost per tonne. 5. Build Tanzanian operating conditions — rain, dust, supply lines, skills, contracting — into equipment decisions. Rate yourself now (1–5) and note your evidence C3.1 I can select and match loading and hauling equipment for a given duty using a structured process.▪ C3.2 I can produce a time-usage breakdown (MA, UA, E, OEE) for a fleet and name its largest loss.▪ C3.3 I can calculate cycle time, match factor and fleet size, including the effect of wet-season roads.▪ C3.4 I can calculate owning and operating cost per tonne and use it to compare options.▪ C3.5 I can explain how Tanzanian conditions change equipment availability and cost at my site.▪ 3.2 Why “tonnes per shilling” In an open-pit mine, loading and hauling is usually the largest single block of operating cost, often 40–60 per cent of mining cost, with fuel, tyres and truck maintenance dominating. The whole chapter rests on one identity: Cost per tonne (TZS/t) = Cost per operating hour (TZS/h) ÷ Tonnes per operating hour (t/h) There are therefore two routes to a lower cost per tonne: reduce the cost of an hour (fuel, tyres, parts, labour, ownership) or raise the tonnes delivered in that hour (payload, cycle time, matching, effective time). On most Tanzanian sites the second route has more room, because machines bought at world prices are run well below their rated output — through long-lead spares, wet-season roads, shift practice and loader– truck mismatch. Modern mining is defined not by the size of its machines but by how the operation is planned and controlled: integrated mine-to-market planning; mechanisation and continuous flow where tonnage justifies it; electrification; digital control and data; safety by design; and asset management over the whole life of the equipment (ISO 55001). Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 42

3.3 Equipment classes and selection Table 3.1 Main classes of surface mining equipment Function Typical equipment Applications Key selection factors Drilling Rotary and down-the-hole drills; top-hammer drills Production, pre-split, grade control Rock strength, hole diameter, bench height Excavation and loading Hydraulic excavators (face shovel, backhoe); electric rope shovels; front-end loaders Blasted rock and overburden Bucket size, mobility, selectivity, power Haulage Rigid-frame dump trucks; articulated trucks Ore and waste Payload, haul profile, road conditions Continuous systems Belt conveyors; in-pit crushers; surface miners High-volume, long-life operations Rate, haul distance, mine life Ancillary Dozers, graders, water trucks, service trucks Roads, dumps, clean-up, dust control Fleet size, road length, climate Small-scale and quarry Small excavators, loaders, articulated trucks, mobile crushers Small mines, quarries, contractors Capital, flexibility, dealer support Selection should follow a structured process rather than habit or a supplier’s recommendation alone: 1. Define the duty: annual tonnage of ore and waste, material properties, bench height, haul profiles and mine life. 2. Identify feasible systems: excavator and truck, loader and truck, or in-pit crushing and conveying (Chapter 4). 3. Size the primary loading unit to meet the rate with suitable bench geometry and selectivity. 4. Match the haulage fleet: truck size filled in 3–5 passes, number from cycle-time analysis. 5. Size support equipment in proportion to the main fleet. 6. Evaluate cost and risk: owning and operating cost per tonne, net present cost, dealer support and resale value. 7. Confirm practicality: workshop capacity, operator training, tyre supply and safety systems. Table 3.2 Criteria for evaluating equipment options Criterion Questions to ask Productivity Can it meet the rate with realistic availability and utilisation? Cost What are owning and operating costs per tonne over its life? Flexibility Can it adapt to changes in mine plan, bench height or material? Selectivity Can it separate ore from waste with acceptable dilution? Support Is there a dealer, parts stock and trained technicians in Tanzania or the region? Standardisation Does it fit the existing fleet, reducing spares and training? Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 43

Criterion Questions to ask Safety and environment Modern safety systems? Fuel use, emissions, noise? Residual value Is there a resale market in the region? Owner fleet or contractor? Table 3.3 Owner-operated or contract mining Factor Owner-operated fleet Contract mining Capital High up-front; mine carries equipment finance Low up-front; paid through rates per bcm or tonne Unit cost over life of mine Usually lower on long-life, stable operations Usually higher, but flexible at start-up or for short lives Control of productivity Direct control of maintenance and operators Through contract KPIs, incentives and penalties Skills built in Tanzania In-house capability if training is funded Depends on contractor; local content plans apply Compliance Mine directly accountable Check contractor ownership and supply category under the Local Content Regulations 3.4 Where the hours go: the time-usage model Productivity cannot be managed until time is classified the same way every shift. A time-usage model splits each machine’s calendar time into nested categories, so that every lost hour has a name and an owner. Table 3.4 Time-usage categories Category What goes in it Typical owner Unscheduled time Public holidays, shifts not worked, planned shutdown of the operation Mine management Downtime Breakdowns, planned maintenance, tyre changes, waiting for parts or fitters Maintenance Standby Available but not working: shift change, meals, no operator, rain standby, blasting clearance, refuelling Production supervisor Operating delays Engine running but not producing: queuing at loader or crusher, waiting for dozer or grader Dispatch, planning Effective time Loading, hauling, dumping and returning All Ratios. Mechanical availability MA = available ÷ scheduled hours. Use of availability UA = operating ÷ available hours. Operating efficiency E = effective ÷ operating hours. Effective utilisation = MA × UA × E. Payload performance P = average ÷ rated payload. Overall equipment effectiveness OEE = MA × UA × E × P. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 44

Three mistakes are common: reporting availability alone (a truck 90 per cent available but parked a third of its available hours has a utilisation problem); booking queuing time as operating time (a truck waiting at the shovel burns fuel and wages but moves nothing); and ignoring payload (a fleet at 85 per cent of rated payload has lost 15 per cent of its capacity without a single hour appearing as a loss). Worked example 3.1 — Time-usage audit of a truck fleet Kisima Gold Mine (a teaching case in the Lake Zone) runs one 250-t class excavator with a 12 m³ bucket loading 91-t trucks. For one truck in a 30-day month: calendar 720 h; unscheduled 60 h; downtime 99 h (breakdowns 72, planned maintenance 27); standby 112 h (shift change and meals 48, no operator 30, rain 22, blasting 12); operating delays 54 h (queuing at shovel 30, crusher 14, road and grader 10). Average payload 82 t (rated 91 t); 246 t per effective hour. Scheduled = 720 − 60 = 660 h. Available = 660 − 99 = 561 h. Operating = 561 − 112 = 449 h. Effective = 449 − 54 = 395 h. MA = 561/660 = 85.0%. UA = 449/561 = 80.0%. E = 395/449 = 88.0%. Effective utilisation = 395/660 = 59.8%. P = 82/91 = 90.1%. OEE = 0.598 × 0.901 = 53.9%. Ranking of losses: standby 112 h > downtime 99 h > unscheduled 60 h > operating delays 54 h. The payload shortfall is worth (1 − 0.901) × 395 ≈ 39 effective hours. Attack standby first: it is the largest loss, needs little capital and sits with production supervision. A hot-seat shift change (operators swap in the field) recovering 40 standby hours per truck gives 40 × 0.88 = 35.2 effective hours × 246 t ≈ 8,660 t per truck per month — about 104,000 t a month for a 12-truck fleet, with no new equipment. 3.5 Loading: payload starts at the face Truck payload is decided by the loader operator and the blast, not by the truck. Loose density = bank density ÷ (1 + swell). Bucket payload = heaped volume × fill factor × loose density. Passes = rated truck payload ÷ bucket payload, rounded to whole passes. Loading time = passes × loader cycle time. Well-fragmented, uniform muckpiles fill the bucket to 0.9–1.0 of heaped volume; blocky, poorly blasted rock leaves voids and slows digging, so fill falls to 0.7–0.85. A small change in fill factor can force the operator to choose between overloading with an extra pass and underloading by one pass. Drill-and-blast design is therefore a haulage decision. Consistent overloading shortens the life of frames, suspension, tyres and final drives; aim for full rated payload in whole passes, with load-sensor feedback. Worked example 3.2 — What the blast is worth Bucket 12 m³; loader cycle 30 s; spot time 0.5 min; bank density 2.70 t/m³; swell 40%; rated payload 91 t, no overloading allowed. Loose density = 2.70 ÷ 1.40 = 1.929 t/m³. Current blast, fill factor 0.85: bucket = 12 × 0.85 × 1.929 = 19.67 t; 4 passes (5 would give 98.4 t, 108%); payload 78.7 t (86.5% of rated). Improved blast, fill factor 0.95: bucket = 21.99 t; 4 passes; payload 87.9 t (96.6%). Loader time per truck = 4 × 0.5 + 0.5 = 2.5 min, so 24 trucks an hour: loader-limited output 1,889 t/h (current) and 2,110 t/h (improved). With unchanged cycle time and hourly cost, haulage cost per tonne falls about 10.5% (78.7 ÷ 87.9 = 0.895) — and the loader gains 12% output at no extra cost. 3.6 Hauling: resistance, roads and cycle time Haul truck speed, fuel use and cycle time depend on the resistance the truck must overcome. Rolling resistance comes from tyre flexing and penetration into the road and is expressed as a percentage of gross vehicle weight; grade resistance equals the grade in per cent (uphill positive). Their sum, the effective grade, is used with the manufacturer’s rimpull–speed chart to find speed on each section. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 45

Table 3.5 Typical rolling resistance (indicative values from equipment handbooks; verify against the handbook you use) Road surface Rolling resistance Hard, smooth, well-maintained, stabilised surface ≈ 2% Firm, maintained gravel or laterite, little flexing ≈ 3% Some rutting and penetration, poorly maintained ≈ 4–5% Rutted, soft road, little maintenance ≈ 8% Soft, muddy, deeply rutted ≈ 10% or more Worked example 3.3 — Effective grade and rimpull in dry and wet seasons A truck of 70 t empty mass carries 90 t up an 8% ramp. Rolling resistance is 3% dry and 6% after heavy rain. Gross mass = 160 t. Dry: effective grade 8 + 3 = 11%. Resisting force = 160,000 kg × 9.81 × 0.11 ≈ 173 kN. Power at 12 km/h = 173 kN × 3.33 m/s ≈ 576 kW at the wheels. Wet: effective grade 14%. Resisting force ≈ 220 kN — about 27% more. At the same power the truck slows by roughly the same proportion, lengthening the cycle and reducing fleet output. Road drainage and maintenance in the rains are among the cheapest ways to raise production. Haul roads on Tanzanian soils. Black-cotton soils swell and lose strength when wet. A haul road built directly on them ruts quickly in the short rains (October–December) and long rains (March–May) unless it has a selected-fill base, a crushed-rock wearing course, crossfall and side drains. Ramp gradients are typically 8–10%, road width three to four truck widths for two-way traffic, with berms at least to the mid-height of the largest tyre on edges. Table 3.6 Simplified speed table for exercises (use OEM charts and site GPS speeds for real studies) Condition (91-t class truck, teaching values) Total resistance Loaded km/h Empty km/h Flat, dry road (RR 3%) 3% 38 50 Flat, wet road (RR 6%) 6% 26 40 (limit) 8% ramp up, dry 11% 12 — 8% ramp up, wet 14% 9 — 8% ramp down, empty, dry — — 30 (braking) 8% ramp down, empty, wet — — 22 (braking) 3.7 Matching and sizing the fleet The loader and its trucks form one system, and the slower part sets the output. Match factor MF = (number of trucks × loader time per truck) ÷ (number of loaders × truck cycle time). MF < 1: too few trucks, the loader waits, output is truck-limited. MF > 1: trucks queue, output is loader-limited. Working trucks needed ≈ cycle time ÷ loader time per truck; trucks to own ≈ working trucks ÷ truck availability, rounded up. At MF exactly 1, trucks still bunch because cycle times vary, so both loader waiting and truck queuing appear. Many operations aim slightly above 1 when the loader is the more expensive asset. Dispatch systems Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 46

reduce bunching. A fleet matched for the dry season will be under-trucked in the rains; decide in advance whether to add trucks, upgrade the road or accept lower output, and put a cost on each choice. Worked example 3.4 — Dry and wet-season fleet sizing Payload 87.9 t (improved blast). Fixed times: spot and load 2.5 min, dump and manoeuvre 1.2 min. Haul: 1.2 km ramp at +8% loaded, then 1.5 km flat; same route back empty. Truck availability 85%. Segment Dry: speed → time Wet: speed → time Ramp 1.2 km loaded 12 km/h → 6.00 min 9 km/h → 8.00 min Flat 1.5 km loaded 38 km/h → 2.37 min 26 km/h → 3.46 min Flat 1.5 km empty 50 km/h → 1.80 min 40 km/h → 2.25 min Ramp 1.2 km empty 30 km/h → 2.40 min 22 km/h → 3.27 min Fixed times 3.70 min 3.70 min Cycle time 16.3 min 20.7 min Working trucks for MF ≈ 1: dry 16.3/2.5 = 6.5 → 7; wet 20.7/2.5 = 8.3 → 9. With 7 trucks: dry MF = 7 × 2.5/16.3 = 1.08, output loader-limited at 2,110 t/h. Wet MF = 0.85, output = 7 × (60/20.7) × 87.9 = 1,785 t/h — a 15.4% loss in the rains, with the excavator waiting about 15% of the time. Trucks to own: dry 7/0.85 → 9; wet 9/0.85 → 11. 3.8 Owning and operating cost The cost of a machine over its life is far greater than its purchase price. Owning cost covers depreciation, interest, insurance and taxes; operating cost covers fuel or power, tyres, maintenance and repairs, wear parts, lubricants and operator labour. Their sum per hour, divided by productivity, gives cost per tonne — the measure that should be used to compare options. Table 3.7 Components of owning and operating cost Component Basis of estimate Tanzanian considerations Depreciation (Delivered price − tyres − residual value) ÷ life in hours Import duties, freight and inland transport add to delivered price Interest, insurance, taxes % of average investment per year ÷ hours per year Cost of finance in TZS or US$ Fuel Litres per hour × fuel price Diesel price and transport to remote sites Tyres Tyre cost ÷ tyre life Road condition, heat, supply lead time Maintenance and repairs Parts and labour per hour; component plans Parts availability, dealer support, technician skills Wear parts and lubricants Per hour, from manufacturer guidance Abrasiveness of the rock Operator labour Wages and benefits per operating hour Training costs, local wage rates Worked example 3.5 — Owning and operating cost of a 90-t truck (illustrative figures) Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 47

Delivered price US$1,800,000 including six tyres worth US$120,000; residual value 10%; life 40,000 h at 6,000 h a year; interest, insurance and taxes 8% a year of average investment. Depreciation = (1,800,000 − 120,000 − 180,000) ÷ 40,000 = US$37.5/h. Average investment = (1,800,000 + 180,000) ÷ 2 = US$990,000; interest etc. = 990,000 × 0.08 ÷ 6,000 = US$13.2/h. Owning cost = US$50.7/h. Fuel 60 L/h × US$1.40 = 84.0; tyres 120,000 ÷ 5,000 h = 24.0; maintenance 45.0; operator 15.0; lubricants and wear parts 8.0. Operating cost = US$176.0/h. Total = US$226.7/h. At 225 t/h, cost ≈ US$1.01/t. Fuel and maintenance dominate: a 10% improvement in fuel use or tyre life changes cost per tonne far more than a small discount on purchase price. 3.9 Decision levers and investment choices Table 3.8 Decision levers and how to test them Lever Acts on Typical action Investment test Fragmentation Fill factor, dig rate, payload, crusher throughput Blast design, powder factor, timing, drill accuracy Extra blasting cost vs load– haul–crush saving Haul-road quality Rolling resistance, speed, fuel, tyres Drainage, capping, grading, watering Road cost per tonne vs fleet saving per tonne Matching and dispatch Queuing, loader waiting Right truck count; dispatch rules or system Truck hours released or added Utilisation Standby hours Hot-seat changes, staggered meals, operator pool, field refuelling Extra operators vs tonnes gained Availability Downtime Planned maintenance, condition monitoring, critical spares Maintenance spend vs downtime avoided Payload management Tonnes per cycle Load sensors, pass matching, carry-back control Low cost; check overload policy Fleet ownership Hourly cost, risk, compliance Owner, contractor or hybrid Life-of-mine cost and risk Worked example 3.6 — Recovering wet-season production: which option? Kisima runs 7 trucks and loses output in the rains (Worked example 3.4). Hourly costs including ownership: truck TZS 550,000 per operating hour; excavator TZS 1,100,000 per operating hour (illustrative). Options: A add 2 trucks; B upgrade the haul road (drainage, crushed-rock capping, dedicated grader) so wet rolling resistance falls to 4% and wet cycle becomes 18.0 min, at TZS 300,000 per wet-season hour; C do B and add 1 truck. Case Trucks Cycle (min) MF Output (t/h) Cost (TZS/h) TZS/t Current (wet) 7 20.7 0.85 1,785 4,950,000 2,773 A: +2 trucks 9 20.7 1.09 2,110 6,050,000 2,868 B: road upgrade 7 18.0 0.97 2,051 5,250,000 2,560 C: road + 1 truck 8 18.0 1.11 2,110 5,800,000 2,749 Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 48

Option A gives the most tonnes but the highest cost per tonne, because its extra trucks partly queue. Option B gives the lowest cost per tonne. Over 1,500 wet-season hours, B delivers about 399,000 extra tonnes at TZS 214/t less. Option C is right only if the plant is short of ore and the margin on extra tonnes exceeds C’s added unit cost. 3.10 Asset management: availability by design Equipment availability in a remote Tanzanian mine is often below the manufacturer’s figure, for reasons that are organisational more than mechanical: long import lead times through Dar es Salaam, limited dealer support at remote sites, scarce diagnostic skills, and maintenance driven by breakdowns because failure history is kept on paper. ISO 55000 defines asset management as the coordinated activity of an organisation to realise value from assets; for a fleet, that value is reliable tonnes at the lowest total cost, safely. Table 3.9 Asset management for mobile fleets Element What it means for a mine fleet Asset register and criticality Every machine and major component tagged; ranked by consequence of failure on production, safety and environment Maintenance strategy by criticality Run-to-failure only where duplicated and cheap; time- or usage-based for wear items; condition-based for critical components; reliability-centred maintenance (SAE JA1011) for the most critical systems Condition monitoring Oil analysis, vibration, thermography, payload and tyre data, telematics Spares strategy Critical spares on site; component exchange programmes; consignment stock and regional pooling under long lead times Failure data Failure codes on every work order so that mean time between failures, mean time to repair and cost per hour can be calculated Life-cycle cost Replacement and rebuild decisions taken on cost per operating hour and per tonne, not purchase price Local capability Component rebuild and service workshops as a cost saving and a local content opportunity Table 3.10 Tanzanian operating conditions and their implications for equipment Condition Effect Response Heavy seasonal rain Soft roads, high rolling resistance, slope instability, lost shifts Road design and drainage; wet- weather plans; all-weather ramps Dust in the dry season Air filter loading, wear, poor visibility Pre-cleaners; water trucks; dust suppressants High ambient temperature Engine and tyre overheating Cooling packages; tyre temperature and speed monitoring Long supply lines Long lead times for parts and tyres Critical spares; component exchange; dealer agreements Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 49

Condition Effect Response Shortage of skilled technicians Low availability; poor diagnosis Training; dealer support contracts; condition monitoring Fuel cost and supply High operating cost; interruptions Fuel management systems; on-site storage; electrification options Mixed fleets of different makes More spares and training Fleet standardisation policy Field tasks for Chapter 3 ▪ Two-week time-usage audit (14 days). On one loader and its trucks, record time in the categories of Table 3.4, with payload and cycle time by shift and weather. Name the largest loss and its owner. ▪ Haul road walk (30 days). Estimate rolling resistance of each section using Table 3.5, in dry weather and after rain. Using Worked example 3.3, estimate the production lost on the worst section and present it to the road maintenance supervisor. ▪ O&O sensitivity (45 days). Build Worked example 3.5 in a spreadsheet with your fleet’s figures. Vary fuel price, tyre life, availability and payload by ±10%. Which variable matters most, and how does your mine manage it? ▪ One equipment decision (90 days). For a real replacement, expansion or contract tender, compare two options by cost per tonne and by Tables 3.2 and 3.10. Write a two-page note to the mine manager. 3.11 Key points Classify every hour: availability alone hides most losses; standby and payload shortfall are often larger▪ than breakdowns. Payload is made at the face: fragmentation sets fill factor, passes and payload.▪ The road is part of the fleet: wet-season rolling resistance on Tanzanian soils can cost more capacity than▪ a missing truck. Match, then size, for both seasons and for availability; judge options by cost per tonne, not tonnes alone.▪ Owning and operating cost per tonne over the asset life — not purchase price — is the basis for▪ equipment decisions. 3.12 Self-test 3 1. Overall equipment effectiveness is: (a) MA × UA (b) effective hours ÷ calendar hours (c) payload ÷ rated payload (d) MA × UA × E × payload performance 2. Queuing at the shovel should be recorded as: (a) effective time (b) operating delay (c) downtime (d) unscheduled time 3. Loose density of rock with bank density 2.6 t/m³ and 30% swell is: (a) 3.38 (b) 2.00 (c) 1.86 (d) 2.30 t/m³ 4. Effective grade for a loaded truck climbing a 10% ramp with 4% rolling resistance is: (a) 6% (b) 10% (c) 14% (d) 40% 5. A match factor of 0.8 means: (a) the loader waits; output is truck-limited (b) trucks queue at the loader (c) perfect balance (d) the crusher is the bottleneck 6. Working trucks needed with a 22-min cycle and 2.5 min loader time per truck: (a) 7 (b) 8 (c) 9 (d) 11 7. In owning and operating cost, the components that usually dominate for haul trucks are: (a) insurance and taxes (b) fuel and maintenance (c) depreciation only (d) operator wages Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 50

8. In Worked example 3.6, the option with the lowest cost per tonne was: (a) adding trucks (b) road plus a truck (c) the status quo (d) the haul road upgrade 9. Contract mining compared with owner mining usually: (a) costs more per tonne over a long life but needs less capital (b) needs more capital (c) gives the owner more control (d) is prohibited by local content rules 10. A truck filled in 4.3 passes: (a) is optimal (b) wastes time or carries less than rated payload (c) needs a bigger loader only (d) has no effect on cost Problem 3.1 In Worked example 3.5, recalculate the cost per tonne if fuel rises to US$1.60 per litre and tyre life falls to 4,000 hours. Problem 3.2 A fleet has calendar 720 h, unscheduled 40 h, downtime 120 h, standby 80 h, operating delays 60 h and payload performance 95%. Calculate MA, UA, E, effective utilisation and OEE, and name the largest loss. Re-rate and reflect. Score C3.1–C3.5 again. Think of an equipment decision you have seen made: was it based on cost per tonne over the machine’s life, or on purchase price and familiarity? What would you now ask a supplier that you would not have asked before? Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 51

4 Bulk Material Handling, Mineral Logistics and Asset Life-Cycle Cost A mine is, above all, a materials-moving enterprise. Every tonne is lifted, crushed, conveyed, stockpiled, reclaimed, loaded and transported, often four to eight times before it earns revenue. A mine produces only as much as its weakest handling link allows — and pays for every tonne- kilometre it moves. In Tanzania the handling chain is also where the national ambition for value addition meets inland logistics that are being rebuilt. 4.1 Learning outcomes and self-rating 1. Map the bulk material handling (BMH) chain from face to port and locate where value is lost. 2. Calculate the availability of a series handling system and the effect of surge capacity. 3. Compare truck haulage with conveyors and in-pit crushing and conveying on throughput, distance and life. 4. Appraise contemporary handling technologies, and the First Mile Connectivity approach, for Tanzanian conditions. 5. Calculate the life-cycle cost of handling assets, choose an appropriate level of digitisation and identify local enterprise opportunities. Rate yourself now (1–5) and note your evidence C4.1 I can map my site’s handling chain from face to customer, with availability and losses at each link.▪ C4.2 I can calculate series-system availability and conveyor payback.▪ C4.3 I can appraise a handling technology for productivity, safety, environment and fit to Tanzanian▪ conditions. C4.4 I can build a life-cycle cost comparison and use it to defend an investment.▪ C4.5 I can name the digitisation step and the local service businesses that would most improve my site’s▪ handling. 4.2 The chain from face to market Bulk material handling covers every operation that moves, stores or transfers loose solids: loading, hauling, dumping, crushing, conveying, stacking, reclaiming, blending, feeding, slurry and paste pumping, load-out and transport to market. A gold plant has been described as a materials handling system with a small chemical plant in the middle: ore, grinding media, lime, cyanide, carbon, water and tailings must all be moved continuously, and most unplanned plant stoppages in Tanzania come not from metallurgy but from blocked chutes, belt damage, worn pumps and failed feeders. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 52

Figure 4.1 The bulk material handling chain from face to market Table 4.1 Main cost drivers of material handling Driver Why it matters Typical levers Haul distance and lift Cost rises with every tonne-kilometre and metre of ramp Pit and dump design; in-pit crushing; shorter routes Payload and fill factor Under-loaded trucks waste fuel and time Payload monitoring; matched loader– truck sizes Cycle time and queuing Waiting trucks add cost without output Fleet management and dispatch Fuel and energy Large and volatile cost; main emissions source Trolley assist; electrification; conveyor substitution Tyres Major consumable damaged by poor roads Road maintenance; tyre monitoring; speed management Availability and maintenance Breakdowns stop the chain Condition monitoring; planned maintenance; spares Labour and skills Operators and maintainers set productivity and safety Training; automation where justified 4.3 Why the chain matters: availability in series Most handling systems are arranged in series: shovel feeds trucks, trucks feed the crusher, the crusher feeds the conveyor. If any link stops, everything downstream starves and everything upstream backs up. The availability of a series system is the product of the availabilities of its links. Surge bins and stockpiles decouple the links so that a short stoppage in one does not stop the whole chain. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 53

Figure 4.2 Availability of a series handling system, with and without surge capacity Worked example 4.1 — System availability Shovel 0.88 × truck fleet 0.90 × crusher 0.92 × conveyor 0.95 = 0.69. Four links each available about 90% give a system below 70%. Raise the crusher to 0.97 through condition monitoring: 0.88 × 0.90 × 0.97 × 0.95 = 0.73 — about 5% more output from the whole chain for an improvement at one machine. Lesson: invest first in the link with the lowest availability or the least surge capacity behind it. 4.4 Trucks, conveyors and in-pit crushing Trucks are flexible and need little fixed capital but cost more per tonne-kilometre to run. Conveyors cost more to build but much less to operate, run on electricity and work continuously; conventional belts climb up to about 15–18 degrees. The choice depends on throughput, distance and mine life. Worked example 4.2 — Conveyor capacity A 1,200 mm troughed belt carries crushed ore of bulk density 1.6 t/m³ at 3.0 m/s; load cross-section 0.13 m². Q = 3,600 × A × v × = 3,600 × 0.13 × 3.0 × 1.6 ≈ρ 2,250 t/h — the output of about ten 90-t trucks at 225 t/h each. (Check the cross-section for the trough and surcharge angles from a conveyor standard such as CEMA.) Worked example 4.3 — Conveyor payback (teaching values) A 4 km conveyor costs US$25 million; operating cost US$0.06 per tonne-km against US$0.20 for trucks. Annual saving = throughput × distance × (0.20 − 0.06). At 5 Mtpa: 5,000,000 × 4 × 0.14 = US$2.8 million; payback = 25 ÷ 2.8 = 8.9 years. At 10 Mtpa: US$5.6 million; payback 4.5 years. Conveyors become attractive above a throughput threshold. Real studies must use site data, discounting and full life-cycle cost. Figure 4.3 Illustrative conveyor payback against throughput (4 km, US$25 million capital) Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 54

In-pit crushing and conveying (IPCC) places a crusher inside the pit so that rock is conveyed rather than trucked up the ramps. It suits large, long-life, high-tonnage operations with stable geometry and reliable power, and is less suited to small, selective or rapidly changing pits. Table 4.2 Types of in-pit crushing and conveying Type Description Truck haul retained Best suited to Fixed Crusher at a permanent location, often at the pit rim Face to crusher Long-life ore haulage, stable geometry Semi-mobile Crusher relocated every few years as the pit deepens Short haul face to crusher Deep pits with long ramps Fully mobile Crusher follows the excavator at the face None Large, regular waste or ore benches 4.5 Tanzanian practice and logistics corridors Table 4.3 Material handling practice across Tanzanian mining segments Segment Typical technology today Main issues Opportunities Large open-pit gold Diesel excavator–truck fleets, often contractor-run; fleet management at larger sites Rising haul distances; diesel cost and emissions; dust; truck–light vehicle interaction Dispatch; payload monitoring; collision avoidance; trolley or battery options; ore conveyors where tonnage justifies Large underground gold Decline trucking, loaders (LHDs), shaft hoisting, paste backfill Diesel heat and ventilation; long ramp hauls Battery-electric loaders and trucks; automation; hoist optimisation Diamond (kimberlite) Open pit, conveyors, slurry tailings Tailings safety (2022 breach); water use Thickened tailings; conveyor monitoring Coal (southern coalfields) Truck–excavator mining; long road haul to Mtwara Road traffic, dust at port, cost per tonne Covered transport; enclosed stockpiles; rail as corridors develop Critical minerals Plant conveyors, slurry systems; bagged or containerised concentrate by road or rail Long distances; infrastructure being built Design for rail and container logistics from day one Quarries and industrial minerals Small excavators, loaders, crushers, road trucks Dust, noise, overloaded trucks, unguarded conveyors Enclosed crushing; dust suppression; weighbridge control Artisanal and small-scale Manual digging, windlasses, wheelbarrows, small crushers and mills Serious injury risk; dust; inefficiency Shared mechanised hoisting and crushing at cooperative centres The corridor end of the chain is being rebuilt. Standard Gauge Railway freight services between Dar es Salaam and Dodoma began in 2025, and the Kwala dry port was launched to decongest Dar es Salaam; the Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 55

Government has announced its intention to shift the bulk of port cargo onto rail. Further SGR sections towards Mwanza, Tabora–Kigoma and beyond are under construction; initial designs exist for a 1,000 km Mtwara–Mbamba Bay line with spurs to Mchuchuma and Liganga; TAZARA is due for upgrading; Tanga, Mtwara and the lake ports are receiving new berths and equipment. For mining personnel this means the bottleneck is moving inland: mines that deliver clean, consistent, well-documented loads to a rail head on schedule will capture the savings; those that cannot will pay for wagons that wait. Table 4.4 Handling challenges at Tanzanian operations Domain Challenge How it shows up on Tanzanian sites Material behaviour Sticky, clay-rich, lateritic ore; wet-season moisture Chute blockages, carry-back, crusher packing, bin hang- ups in the long rains Abrasion and wear Quartz-rich gold ores, graphite schists, iron ore Short liner and idler life; imported wear parts with long lead times Spares and supply chain Imported belts, idlers, gearboxes, bearings Six- to twelve-week waits; high inventory; customs delays Power quality Voltage dips and outages at remote sites Motor and drive failures; belts stopping loaded; diesel back-up cost Haul roads and corridors Unpaved roads, rain damage, long distances to rail Tyre wear; trucking cost far above rail; concentrate losses Rail and port interface Wagon availability, scheduling, berth congestion Demurrage; stockpile build-up; degradation of graphite flake or bags Environment and community Dust, noise, spillage, stockpile runoff Complaints near haul routes; NEMC compliance pressure Safety Conveyor nip points, manual cleaning, unguarded tail pulleys Entanglement during clean-up on running belts Skills Few belt splicers, reliability engineers, condition- monitoring analysts Breakdown-driven maintenance culture Asset data Paper job cards, no failure codes, no cost per asset Capital decisions on purchase price only Conveyor and chute work is one of the most frequent causes of serious injury in processing plants. Isolation and lock-out before clearing a blocked chute or adjusting a belt is a legal duty under the OHS Act and the mining safety regulations, not merely good practice. Guarding, pull-wire emergency stops and remote condition monitoring reduce the need to approach running belts. 4.6 Contemporary technologies appraised For each technology the questions are the same: what does it do for productivity, safety and environment; how mature is it; what does it cost; and does it fit Tanzanian conditions now? Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 56

Figure 4.4 Indicative appraisal of contemporary handling technologies for Tanzanian conditions Table 4.5 Contemporary handling technologies Group Technologies Notes for Tanzania Moving material efficiently IPCC; overland, high-angle and pipe conveyors Pipe conveyors enclose material, preventing spillage and dust near communities Electrification Trolley assist on ramps; battery-electric trucks and underground loaders Depends on reliable power; grid expansion and Julius Nyerere Hydropower (2,115 MW) improve the outlook Automation and digital control Fleet management and dispatch; payload monitoring; autonomous haulage; predictive maintenance Dispatch is mature, affordable and the obvious first step; autonomy needs large fleets and strong connectivity Safety systems Collision avoidance and proximity detection; conveyor guarding and lock-out; fatigue monitoring Vehicle–person interaction is a leading cause of surface- mine fatalities Environmental controls Enclosed transfers; fog suppression; covered stockpiles; haul road treatment; thickened and paste tailings Handling is the main source of mine dust Load-out and logistics Silos with rapid loading systems; containerised concentrate handling The heart of First Mile Connectivity Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 57

Figure 4.5 Reported gains from contemporary technologies (single-site figures; not directly comparable) Table 4.6 Case facts for discussion Case Reported facts Lesson S11D, Brazil (truckless iron ore, about 90 Mtpa) Mobile in-pit crushers and about 68 km of conveyors; energy use 67% lower, CO e 73% lower,₂ operating cost at least 15% lower than truck-and- shovel At very high tonnage and long life, IPCC transforms cost and emissions Copper mine, Kazakhstan (IPCC study) Diesel cut 93% (about 47 million L/yr); Scope 1 CO e cut 73%; operating cost cut 15%₂ The diesel case can be decisive for deep pits Boliden, Sweden (trolley assist) Aitik pilot: 700 m line; uphill speed 15 → 30 km/h; about 25 L diesel saved per trip; expansion saving about 5,500 m³ diesel a year An incremental, proven step for long uphill hauls with reliable power Autonomous haulage, Australia About 575 autonomous trucks; reported productivity gains of 20–30% and cost reductions near 20% Gains need large fleets, connectivity and specialist support Questions to ask before selecting technology. What is the throughput and mine life? How stable is the geometry? Is power reliable and affordable? Can we maintain it locally? What does it do to people’s exposure to hazards? What are the dust, noise and emission effects on neighbours? What is the whole-life cost? 4.7 First Mile Connectivity: lessons from India In India “first mile” is the movement of coal from pithead to dispatch point, usually a railway siding. Traditionally it was done by road trucks, with congestion, accidents, dust, diesel emissions, pilferage and slow loading. The Ministry of Coal’s First Mile Connectivity (FMC) programme replaces this road movement with coal handling plants, closed conveyors, silos and computerised rapid loading into rail wagons. It began with mines of 4 Mtpa and above and, after a pilot study showed lower CO , pollutants, noise and diesel cost,₂ was extended to mines of 2 Mtpa and above. By August 2025, 44 projects (429.5 Mtpa) were operational of 102 planned (about 1,092 Mtpa) by 2029–30, with about 90.5% of national coal production to be dispatched through FMC. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 58

Figure 4.6 Conventional road evacuation compared with First Mile Connectivity Table 4.7 Applying the First Mile Connectivity approach in Tanzania Tanzanian situation Possible application Coal trucked long distances to Mtwara; dust at the port Short term: covered trucks, enclosed port stockpiles, mechanised ship loading, dust suppression. Long term: mine- site silo and rapid loading onto the southern SGR corridor Mchuchuma coal and Liganga iron ore Plan conveyor–silo–rail evacuation into the project design and EIA from the outset Nickel, graphite and rare-earth concentrates Mine-site container terminals and rail sidings on SGR or TAZARA; sealed transport Large gold mines (ore within the lease) Conveyors from fixed in-pit crushers where tonnage and life justify; otherwise dispatch optimisation Quarries near towns Conveyors to adjacent plants; weighbridge and covering rules for road trucks National policy Require FMC-type evaluation in EIAs for bulk projects above a tonnage-and-distance threshold Local content Local fabrication of conveyor structures, idlers and chutes; Tanzanian maintenance contractors Adapt, do not copy: India moves about a billion tonnes of coal a year over a dense rail network, largely through State-owned producers. Tanzanian tonnages are smaller and more varied, rail access is still expanding, power reliability varies, and financing would rely more on private operators and partnerships with Tanzania Railways Corporation and the port authorities. A five-step Tanzanian approach would: (1) map bulk mineral flows by road; (2) set tonnage × distance thresholds above which mechanised or rail evacuation must be evaluated; (3) plan corridors jointly with SGR, TAZARA and port authorities; (4) phase in interim controls while infrastructure is built; and (5) build conveyor design, maintenance and safety skills, local fabrication and inspection standards. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 59

4.8 Life-cycle cost and maintenance by criticality A conveyor, crusher or loader is not a purchase; it is a stream of costs and services over 10 to 30 years. Life- cycle costing brings all of them to a present value so that options can be compared fairly; it is the basis of ISO 55000/55001 and is described in IEC 60300-3-3. **LCC = C_acquisition + (C_energy + C_maintenance + C_downtime + C_operations + C_digital)_t ÷ (1 + r)^tΣ + C_disposal.** When annual costs are constant, the sum is the annual cost × the annuity factor [1 − (1 + r)^−n] ÷ r. The term most often ignored is downtime: one hour of a stopped main conveyor stops crushing, milling and dispatch together. Worked example 4.4 — Overland conveyor upgrade (illustrative) A 1 km overland conveyor feeds a plant. Ten years at 10% (annuity factor 6.1446); downtime cost US$2,500 per hour. Cost element (US$) A: standard B: premium + monitoring Acquisition and installation 1,200,000 1,450,000 Maintenance per year 180,000 130,000 Unplanned downtime per year 300,000 (120 h) 100,000 (40 h) Energy per year 210,000 190,000 Digital monitoring service per year 0 25,000 Annual operating total 690,000 445,000 Present value of 10 years 4,239,751 2,734,332 Life-cycle cost 5,439,751 4,184,332 Option B costs US$250,000 more to buy but saves US$245,000 a year: payback about one year, and 23% cheaper over ten years. A buyer who looks only at purchase price picks A and loses money every year after. Worked example 4.5 — Choosing a mill discharge pump (illustrative) Ten years at 10% (annuity factor 6.145). Option A: buy and install US$80,000; energy 95,000 and maintenance 25,000 a year. Option B: 120,000; energy 82,000; maintenance 15,000. Present value of annual costs: A = 120 × 6.145 = 737; B = 97 × 6.145 = 596 (US$ thousands). LCC: A = 817; B = 716. B costs US$40,000 more but saves about US$100,000 over ten years — before counting fewer stoppages. Table 4.8 Maintenance strategy by asset criticality Asset class Failure consequence Recommended strategy Key metrics Main overland and plant-feed conveyors Whole plant stops RCM study; condition-based maintenance (vibration, thermography, belt scanning); critical spares on site Availability, MTBF, LCC per tonne Primary crusher Plant stops; long repair Liner wear measurement; oil analysis; planned shutdowns Utilisation, liner cost per tonne Haul trucks and loaders Reduced output Telematics, tyre management, usage- based maintenance Cost per tonne-km, tyre life, fuel per tonne Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 60

Asset class Failure consequence Recommended strategy Key metrics Feeders, screens, chutes Local stoppage Inspection routes; wear-liner programme Blockage events, liner life Ancillary pumps, dust systems Compliance risk Time-based; run-to-failure where duplicated Compliance incidents 4.9 Appropriate digitisation “Appropriate” means the digital tool fits the site’s connectivity, power supply, budget, language and skills, and local people can maintain it. A digital twin no one can update is worse than a well-kept paper log. Climb one rung at a time and prove the value at each step. Table 4.9 The digitisation ladder for handling systems Rung Description Example uses L0 Paper and memory: job cards, shift books Knowledge leaves when people leave L1 Structured records: asset register with tags, failure codes and cost per job; offline mobile forms in Kiswahili LCC becomes possible L2 Periodic condition monitoring on fixed routes Vibration pens, thermal cameras, ultrasonic idler checks, oil sampling — high return, low capital L3 Online sensing and telematics Belt scales, rip detection, motor current, wireless idler sensors, truck telematics, dust monitors via GSM or LoRaWAN L4 Predictive analytics Failure prediction; spares forecasting; drone stockpile volumetrics L5 Integrated digital twin Pit-to-port simulation for scheduling, blending and rail booking; suited to large integrated projects 4.10 Enterprise opportunities for Tanzanian youth Tanzanian firms already sell over a billion US dollars of goods and services a year to mines, and the 2025 amendments to the Local Content Regulations require foreign suppliers to form joint ventures with Tanzanian-owned firms. Handling assets need constant service close to site, which suits small, skilled, local businesses. Table 4.10 Handling-service ventures under the local content regime Venture Service to mines Skills to build Belt splicing and repair crew Hot and cold vulcanising, pulley lagging, emergency call-out Certified splicing, isolation, rubber chemistry Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 61

Venture Service to mines Skills to build Idler and roller refurbishment Re-bearing, re-shelling, balancing, testing Machining, bearing fitting, quality testing Wear-parts fabrication Chute liners, skirting, scraper blades, crusher spares Welding, hard-facing, CAD, materials testing Condition monitoring as a service Monthly vibration, thermal and oil rounds with reports ISO 18436 vibration certification; reporting Drone survey and stockpile volumetrics Inventory, haul road condition, pit mapping Drone licensing (TCAA), photogrammetry, GIS Maintenance data and CMMS support Asset tagging, failure coding, dashboards Database and spreadsheet analytics; app configuration IoT sensor installation Sensors, gateways, solar power for remote monitoring Electronics, networking, solar PV Mechanised handling for ASM clusters Shared small crushers, conveyors and loaders for hire Equipment hire models; safety training The path from idea to contract is: find a real, costed problem at a named site; prove the skill through recognised certification (VETA, DIT, the Mineral Resources Institute, UDSM or OEM programmes); register the company and as a local supplier with the Mining Commission; partner with foreign suppliers that now need Tanzanian joint-venture partners; arrange contract-backed finance; and report results to clients in cost per tonne and downtime saved. Field tasks for Chapter 4 ▪ Know your handling cost (30 days). With finance, estimate the share of site operating cost spent on loading, hauling, crushing, conveying and transport to market — the real figure from the cost centre, not an estimate. ▪ Find the weakest link (45 days). Collect three months of availability data for each link; calculate system availability; identify the weakest link and the surge capacity behind it. ▪ Stoppage Pareto (45 days). List every plant stoppage over six months by cause and handling stage. Which two causes account for most lost hours, and what is each hour worth in ounces at your head grade and recovery? ▪ Your own LCC (90 days). For one handling asset due for replacement, collect three years of cost, breakdown and energy data, agree a downtime cost with finance, and compare two options at 8%, 12% and 15%. Does your procurement process allow a higher price to win on LCC? 4.11 Key points System availability is the product of link availabilities; invest first in the weakest link or add surge▪ capacity. Conveyors and IPCC pay at high throughput, fixed routes and long life; elsewhere start with dispatch,▪ payload control, roads and collision avoidance. The logistics bottleneck is moving inland as SGR and ports expand; plan rail-ready handling and interim▪ dust controls. Purchase price is a small part of life-cycle cost; downtime is the most ignored and often the largest term.▪ Digitise one rung at a time, and build local service businesses around the handling chain.▪ Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 62

4.12 Self-test 4 1. Four links in series each have availability 0.9. System availability is about: (a) 0.90 (b) 0.81 (c) 0.66 (d) 0.36 2. The main purpose of a surge bin between links is to: (a) decouple links so one stoppage does not stop the chain (b) raise grade (c) reduce dust (d) reduce crusher wear 3. Conveyors become more economic than trucks mainly when: (a) throughput is low and the pit changes often (b) diesel is cheap (c) power is unreliable (d) throughput is high, routes are fixed and life is long 4. The cheapest first step to raise haul fleet productivity is usually: (a) autonomous haulage (b) fleet management and dispatch (c) IPCC (d) trolley assist 5. Battery-electric loaders are especially valuable underground because they: (a) need no maintenance (b) are cheaper to buy (c) remove exhaust and reduce heat and ventilation needs (d) need no charging 6. Pipe conveyors are chosen near communities because they: (a) are faster (b) enclose material, preventing spillage and dust (c) need no power (d) carry people 7. India’s FMC programme replaces: (a) rail with road (b) underground with open pits (c) coal with renewables (d) road movement from pithead to dispatch with conveyors, silos and rapid loading 8. The FMC size criterion was extended from 4 Mtpa to: (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 6 Mtpa 9. The LCC term most often ignored in Tanzanian practice is: (a) acquisition (b) energy (c) downtime (d) disposal 10. Rung L1 of the digitisation ladder is: (a) structured records with failure codes and cost per job (b) a digital twin (c) online belt scanning (d) predictive analytics Problem 4.1 A chain has a loader (A = 0.85), trucks (0.92), a crusher (0.90) and a conveyor (0.96). Calculate system availability. Which single improvement gives the larger gain: loader to 0.92 or crusher to 0.96? Problem 4.2 A quarry ships 3 Mtpa over 6 km by road at US$0.18 per tonne-km. A conveyor would cost US$30 million and operate at US$0.05 per tonne-km. Calculate simple payback. Would you recommend it on cost alone? What else might justify it? Problem 4.3 Calculate the life-cycle cost of an option costing US$200,000 with annual costs of US$60,000 over 8 years at 12% (annuity factor 4.968). Re-rate and reflect. Score C4.1–C4.5 again. Which handling problem at your site is really a data or decision problem disguised as an equipment problem? Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 63

5 Mineral Processing, Mine Waste and Tailings Governance Sustainable mining is judged by what remains when the ore is gone. Almost every tonne of ore that enters a gold plant leaves it as tailings, and for every tonne of ore the mine moves several tonnes of waste rock. Waste that is characterised, minimised, reused and safely stored is the clearest evidence that a mine has turned a finite resource into lasting value rather than a lasting liability. 5.1 Learning outcomes and self-rating 1. Explain what sustainable mining means, and relate the Sustainable Development Goals and international standards to site practice. 2. Describe how ore characteristics control the gold processing circuit, its recovery and its waste. 3. Classify mine waste streams and use acid–base accounting to classify waste rock. 4. Compare tailings technologies and raising methods, and explain the governance requirements of the Global Industry Standard on Tailings Management (GISTM). 5. Analyse Tanzanian tailings and mercury cases and propose governance and waste-to-value improvements. Rate yourself now (1–5) and note your evidence C5.1 I can explain sustainable mining and name the standards that investors, lenders and buyers apply to▪ my site. C5.2 I can read my plant’s flowsheet and say where gold, water and reagents are lost.▪ C5.3 I can classify waste rock as acid forming or not from test data, and say how it should be placed.▪ C5.4 I can assess my tailings facility against the six GISTM topics with evidence.▪ C5.5 I can explain mercury use in artisanal gold mining and the practical alternatives in Tanzania.▪ 5.2 What “sustainable mining” means The 1987 Brundtland Commission defined sustainable development as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own. Applied to mining, the question is not whether minerals are depleted — they always are — but whether depleting them leaves future generations better or worse off. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 64

Figure 5.1 Sustainable mining as the conversion of mineral capital into lasting value Mining converts mineral capital into other forms: produced capital (infrastructure, industry), human capital (skills, health), social capital (trust, institutions) and financial capital. It contributes to sustainable development when that value is reinvested in lasting capital and when it does not run down the rest of natural capital. Under strong sustainability, some natural capital — clean water, critical ecosystems, the safety of people below a tailings dam — cannot be traded for money and must be protected regardless. Table 5.1 Four dimensions of sustainable mining at the site Dimension What it means on a Tanzanian site Evidence Economic Efficient extraction, fair revenue to the State, local procurement and value addition Recovery; royalties paid; local procurement share; asset performance Environmental Waste characterised and safely stored; water protected; land progressively rehabilitated PAF encapsulated; recycle ratio; hectares rehabilitated; no uncontrolled releases Social Safe work; community health; fair land access; benefits shared Injury rates; grievance closure; CSR outcomes; local employment Governance Compliance, transparency, accountability; closure planned from the start Compliance register; published reports; closure plan and bond; independent assurance Mining affects almost every SDG. The 2016 atlas Mapping Mining to the Sustainable Development Goals draws two lessons: mining’s first duty is to avoid harm to the goals it can damage (water, health, ecosystems, climate); its opportunity is to contribute where it has unique leverage (decent work, infrastructure, local enterprise, energy). A single tailings facility can help or harm SDG 3 (health), 6 (water), 11 and 16 (safety and accountable governance), 12 (resource efficiency) and 15 (land) at once. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 65

Figure 5.2 The landscape of contemporary sustainability standards for mining Table 5.2 Key standards and their relevance (confirm current status of standards in development) Standard What it covers How it reaches a Tanzanian mine IFC Performance Standards 1–8 E&S risk, labour, pollution, community safety, land, biodiversity Conditions of project finance (IFC, Equator Principles banks) ICMM Mining Principles; Responsible Gold Mining Principles; Towards Sustainable Mining; Copper Mark Industry performance expectations with assurance Membership and buyer requirements Consolidated Mining Standard (launch scheduled 2026) Merges ICMM, Copper Mark, World Gold Council and MAC standards Expected main benchmark for multinational operators IRMA Standard Multi-stakeholder, independently audited Buyers and investors seeking independent audit GISTM (2020) Tailings governance, design, operation, emergency preparedness, disclosure ICMM members; lenders; insurers International Cyanide Management Code Cyanide production, transport, storage, use, disposal Gold operations and suppliers Minamata Convention on Mercury Reduction and elimination of mercury, including in ASGM Binding on Tanzania as a Party ISO 14001, ISO 45001, ISO 55001 Environment, health and safety, asset management systems Company certification GRI 14: Mining Sector (2024) Sustainability reporting incl. tailings, closure, ASM Company reports Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 66

Standard What it covers How it reaches a Tanzanian mine UN Panel on Critical Energy Transition Minerals (2024) Seven principles: human rights; environment; fairness; benefit- sharing and value addition; responsible finance; governance; collaboration Shapes policy for graphite, nickel, lithium and rare earths 5.3 Gold processing in Tanzania: from run-of-mine to tailings Free-milling ores are treated by crushing, grinding and carbon-in-leach (CIL). Bulyanhulu, a narrow-vein gold–silver–copper deposit, uses gravity, flotation and CIL, and destroys cyanide with the INCO SO /air₂ process before deposition; it also built a CIL plant of about 2.4 Mt/y to re-treat historical tailings — a Tanzanian example of treating old tailings as a resource. Policy since 2017 has pushed value addition: export of concentrates was restricted, the Mwanza refinery was commissioned, and licence holders must sell at least 20 per cent of gold for domestic refining. These rules change what product the plant makes and how carefully gold must be accounted for. Table 5.3 Run-of-mine characteristics and their consequences for the plant Characteristic How measured What it decides Gold deportment (free, locked in sulphide, in solid solution) Mineralogy; diagnostic leach Whether simple CIL is enough or flotation, fine grinding or oxidation is needed Gold particle size Gravity recoverable gold (GRG) test Size and value of a gravity circuit Sulphides (pyrite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite) Assay, mineralogy Cyanide and oxygen demand; acid drainage risk in tailings Cyanide-soluble copper Diagnostic leach Cyanide consumption; need for flotation or SART Carbonaceous matter Organic carbon; preg- robbing test CIL rather than CIP; blanking agents Hardness and competence Bond work index; SMC; drop-weight Mill size and power; SAG or HPGR Abrasiveness Bond abrasion index Liner, media, chute and pump wear Clay and moisture Atterberg limits; moisture Chute blockage, crusher packing, slurry rheology in the rains Table 5.4 Matching ore type to circuit Ore type Typical circuit Key risk Oxide, free-milling, soft Single-stage crush, SAG/ball, gravity, CIL; heap leach for low grade Clay and slimes in the wet season Fresh, free-milling, hard SAG/ball or crush–HPGR–ball, gravity, CIL Energy and liner cost Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 67

Ore type Typical circuit Key risk Sulphide-associated Grind, flotation, concentrate regrind and intensive leach, CIL of tails Cyanide and oxygen demand; acid drainage in tailings Refractory (solid solution in arsenopyrite) Flotation then pressure oxidation, bio- oxidation or roasting, then CIL Capital cost; arsenic disposal Copper-bearing Copper flotation, CIL of tails, possibly SART Cyanide consumption; concentrate rules Carbonaceous (preg- robbing) CIL, blanking agents, carbon flotation Gold loss to native carbon Ore changes with depth, from oxide through transitional to fresh sulphide, so characterisation must continue for the life of the mine. Geometallurgy gives each block in the model a predicted throughput, recovery and reagent use, so the mine feeds the plant for value rather than tonnes. Mine-to-mill practice extends this to blasting: energy spent in the blast is cheaper than energy spent in the mill. Comminution is usually the largest energy consumer and operating cost; gravity recovers coarse free gold early; in CIL leaching and adsorption happen in the same tanks, protecting against preg-robbing ore. Before tailings leave the plant, cyanide is reduced, and the Cyanide Code expects weak-acid-dissociable (WAD) cyanide in open water at the tailings facility to be kept at or below 50 mg/L to protect birds and wildlife. 5.4 Mine waste streams and the waste hierarchy Figure 5.3 Mine waste streams from generation to safe, compliant end-state Table 5.5 Waste streams, hazards, controls and indicators Stream Principal hazards Good-practice controls Key indicators Overburden and waste rock Acid and metalliferous drainage; erosion; slope instability Geochemical testing (ABA, NAG, kinetic); selective handling; PAF encapsulation; backfill; progressive cover % characterised; % PAF encapsulated; ha rehabilitated per year Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 68

Stream Principal hazards Good-practice controls Key indicators Tailings Dam failure; seepage of cyanide and metals; dust Design and operation to GISTM; Engineer of Record; independent review; thickened or filtered tailings; instruments Freeboard; phreatic surface; seepage; WAD cyanide; open review actions Hazardous non-process Soil and water contamination; worker exposure Segregation at source; bunded storage; licensed transporters; manifests % recovered; incidents; manifest completeness Domestic and general Disease vectors; fire Reduce–reuse–recycle; engineered landfill; composting kg per person per day; % diverted Mercury (ASGM) Neurotoxic exposure; river contamination Mercury-free processing; retorts as interim; formalisation Miners trained; kg mercury displaced NORM- bearing residues Radiation exposure from concentrated natural radionuclides Radiological screening before disposal or reuse Residues screened Sustainable mining treats waste as something to be designed out first and disposed of last. The highest- value opportunities in Tanzanian practice usually lie in avoiding waste through better mine planning and ore sorting, reducing water in tailings by thickening, reusing non-acid-forming rock for roads and backfill, and recovering residual metals and water from tailings. Each step up the hierarchy reduces environmental risk and the eventual closure bill. Figure 5.4 The mine waste hierarchy 5.5 Is the rock acid forming? Acid–base accounting Acid–base accounting compares a rock’s capacity to generate acid with its capacity to neutralise it. Maximum potential acidity MPA (kg H SO /t) ≈ total S (%) × 30.6₂ ₄ . Acid neutralising capacity (ANC) is measured in the laboratory in the same units. Net acid producing potential NAPP = MPA − ANC; positive NAPP means the rock can produce more acid than it can neutralise. The net acid generation (NAG) test oxidises a sample with hydrogen peroxide; NAG pH below 4.5 indicates acid generation. Samples in the uncertain quadrants need kinetic (long-term leach) testing. Worked example 5.1 — Classify six waste rock samples (Lake Victoria goldfield) Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 69

Sample Total S (%) ANC NAG pH MPA NAPP Class Placement A 0.2 66 9.1 6.1 −59.9 NAF Outer cover or road base B 0.5 40 7.8 15.3 −24.7 NAF General dump; reuse candidate C 2.0 26 2.9 61.2 +35.2 PAF Encapsulate in dump core D 3.0 12 2.4 91.8 +79.8 PAF (high) Encapsulate; consider blending with NAF E 0.8 32 5.2 24.5 −7.5 NAF (low margin) Treat cautiously; kinetic test F 0.9 15 3.9 27.5 +12.5 PAF Encapsulate Cover the last five columns and work them yourself before checking. Figure 5.5 Classification of the samples by NAPP and NAG pH 5.6 Tailings: technologies, raising methods and governance Gold tailings are fine (often 80 per cent passing 75–150 μm), of low permeability and slow to consolidate; they carry residual cyanide and its breakdown products, may contain sulphides that oxidise to acid and release arsenic, and can liquefy if loose and saturated, especially under seismic loading — relevant in parts of Tanzania within the East African Rift. A plant treating 4 Mt a year produces nearly 4 Mt of tailings a year, and the facility that holds them becomes the largest structure on site and the one that outlasts the mine. Table 5.6 Tailings technologies compared Method Solids content Advantages Limitations Conventional slurry 30–50% Low capital, proven Large water loss, large pond, highest failure consequence Thickened 50–70% More water recovered; smaller pond Thickener cost; pumping control Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 70

Method Solids content Advantages Limitations Paste 70–85% Little free water; underground backfill Positive-displacement pumping; cost Filtered (dry stack) > 80% Highest water recovery; no pond; lower failure consequence Filter capital and operating cost; wet-season placement In-pit deposition any Uses mined-out void; no new embankment Only when a pit is finished; groundwater risk Co-disposal with waste rock varies Combines streams; can improve stability Placement control; geochemistry Conventional slurry facilities are raised by the upstream method (least embankment fill, built on previously deposited tailings, most vulnerable), the centreline method (intermediate) or the downstream method (most fill, most robust). Upstream raises are associated with many of the world’s worst failures and are no longer accepted for new facilities in several jurisdictions. The Global Industry Standard on Tailings Management was published in 2020 by ICMM, UNEP and the Principles for Responsible Investment after the Brumadinho disaster in Brazil (January 2019, more than 270 people killed, about 12 million m³ released). It sets 15 principles under six topics: Table 5.7 The six GISTM topics GISTM topic What it requires Evidence a regulator or lender asks for 1 Affected communities Respect human rights; involve people who could be affected Engagement records; grievance mechanism 2 Integrated knowledge base Know the site, the tailings and the downstream consequences of failure Characterisation; dam-break study; consequence classification 3 Design, construction, operation and monitoring Minimise risk in all phases including closure; robust monitoring Design basis; construction records; instrument data 4 Management and governance Accountable Executive; Responsible Tailings Facility Engineer; Engineer of Record; independent review for higher-consequence facilities Named appointments; review reports 5 Emergency response and recovery Plan and test response with communities and authorities Exercised emergency plan 6 Public disclosure Access to information Published facility information Monitoring should include piezometers (phreatic surface against design limits), survey prisms and inclinometers supplemented by drone surveys and satellite radar (InSAR) that detects millimetre-scale movement, beach length and freeboard checked daily and before forecast heavy rain, seepage flow and quality, and WAD cyanide in the pond — tied to trigger action response plans (TARPs) that tell staff exactly what to do when a reading crosses a threshold. Chapter 6 shows how rainfall-corrected thresholds give earlier warning. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 71

Tanzanian tailings cases ▪ North Mara (2019). In January NEMC issued an Environmental Protection Order with a TZS 300 million fine over breaches including long-known seepage at the base of the tailings facility; in May a further fine of TZS 5.6 billion (about US$2.4 million) was imposed, with weeks to pay and to fix the facility, and the Government directed construction of a new facility. The case shows both the reach and the limits of enforcement: action came after chronic seepage, and the operator reported not having received the supporting test data. Shared, transparent monitoring would have served all parties better. ▪ Williamson diamond mine, Mwadui (7 November 2022). About 150 m of the eastern wall of the tailings facility failed. Slurry covered roughly 4.7–5.4 km² (estimates differ by source), about 1.5 km² outside the concession, flooding parts of Nyenze and Ng’wanholo villages. No deaths were reported; 286 people from 50 houses were relocated; NEMC imposed a TZS 1 billion fine; first-phase compensation was about TZS 1.8 billion; production stopped for more than eight months, and a new facility was built to GISTM. The operator had adopted a GISTM-aligned policy only months earlier. A policy is not a safety case: regulators need evidence of implementation — an accountable Engineer of Record, independent review, instrumented surveillance and a tested emergency plan. ▪ Scale of oversight. The Ministry of Water reports at least 60 tailings facilities in the country. The Mining Commission inspected 10 sites in 2019/20 and 26 tailings facilities in 2020/21; operating permits for tailings dams are issued by the Ministry of Water. 5.7 Artisanal gold and mercury Artisanal and small-scale gold mining is Tanzania’s largest source of mercury release. Mercury is cheap, easy to buy and recovers gold within hours, giving miners cash the same day; its costs fall on miners and buyers who inhale vapour when amalgam is burned, on households near washing ponds, and on rivers draining to Lake Victoria. Studies at Mgusu in Geita found significant mercury in food crops grown near washing ponds. Figure 5.6 Estimated annual mercury use in Tanzanian ASGM (2019 background estimate) Estimates vary widely. The 2019 background study to the national action plan estimated about 690,000 people in ASGM, about 4 t of gold a year, 1.3–3 g of mercury per gram of gold and 5.2–12 t of mercury a year. More recent official figures cite about 1.2 million people and 18–25 t of mercury a year. The national action plan under the Minamata Convention targeted a 30 per cent cut by 2025; progress has not been publicly reported. The range is itself a governance finding: what is not measured consistently cannot be regulated consistently. Regulation alone has not changed practice because miners lack affordable alternatives. The response has moved in the right direction: the Ministry of Minerals built carbon-in-pulp (CIP) processing centres at Itumbi (Chunya), Lwamgasa (Geita) and Katente (Bukombe); NEMC with the Chief Government Chemist trained small-scale miners on mercury handling in seven regions; and Tanzania is part of the World Bank/GEF Africa Environmental Health and Pollution Management Program. A social enterprise in Geita running a CIP plant for artisanal ore reports lifting gold extraction from about 30 per cent to upwards of 90 per cent. When the cleaner route also yields more gold, compliance follows the money. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 72

The move from mercury to cyanide reduces one hazard but creates another: CIP centres and small-scale vat leaching produce cyanide-bearing tailings, and cyanide leaching of mercury-contaminated amalgamation tailings can mobilise mercury further. All CIP centres, public and private, need cyanide management, engineered tailings containment and published monitoring. Large-mine plant personnel have exactly the skills the artisanal sector needs — gravity concentration, safe cyanide handling, tailings containment, assaying — and can share them through demonstration, toll processing and laboratory support. 5.8 Governance gaps and waste to value Tanzania’s legal framework for mine waste — the Environmental Management Act, the Mining Act and their regulations — is broadly complete. The gaps are in ownership of the waste life cycle, in data and in field capacity: • NORM. The Tanzania Atomic Energy Commission has identified naturally occurring radioactive material in gold tailings, coal handling and phosphate processing; rules for conventional mining are general. Joint TAEC–NEMC–Mining Commission procedures, screening thresholds aligned with IAEA guidance and a regional radiological baseline would close the gap. • Financial assurance. Rehabilitation bonds under the 2010 mining regulations and environmental performance bonds under the 2024 EMA regulations are only as strong as the closure-cost estimates behind them and the regulator’s ability to reassess them as mines expand (Chapter 7). • Evidence, not policies. A tiered assurance framework would classify each tailings facility by consequence and attach proportionate evidence: registration and annual inspection for low consequence; a named Engineer of Record, quarterly reports and five-yearly review for significant consequence; an independent review board, dam-break modelling, community-tested emergency plans and published summaries for high consequence, with a public national TSF register. Table 5.8 A maturity ladder for mine-waste governance Stage Description Tanzania today 1 Permit and comply EIA, licence conditions, reactive inspection Strong 2 Assure Independent review, adequate bonds, GISTM evidence, NORM screening Elements in place, not yet systematic 3 Disclose Public audits and TSF registers; shared water data; community voice Emerging 4 Recover value Tailings reprocessing, mercury-free services, waste-based materials, local start-ups Early examples Two cases show how waste can carry its own business case. Epanko graphite (Morogoro): in February 2026 Betolar, the Geological Survey of Finland and EcoGraf agreed to assess the project’s tailings — about 0.9 Mt a year expected in the first decade — for metal extraction and use as a low-carbon construction binder, designed in before production starts. Bulyanhulu re-treats historical tailings through a 2.4 Mt/y CIL plant. Any reuse of tailings in building materials must be preceded by radiological screening. Field tasks for Chapter 5 ▪ Waste register (30 days). List every waste stream at your site with volume, hazard class, handling and owner (Table 5.5). Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 73

▪ Geochemical status (45 days). Find what proportion of waste rock has been tested and how PAF is placed. Propose improvements. ▪ Flowsheet and gold losses (45 days). Redraw your plant flowsheet by hand. Mark every point where gold can be lost and rank them by value per year. Which has never been investigated? ▪ TSF self-assessment (60 days). With your tailings engineer, score your facility 0–3 against each GISTM topic in Table 5.7, record the evidence, and list the three largest gaps with owners and dates. ▪ One step up the hierarchy (90 days). Start one improvement — reuse NAF rock, recycle used oil, reduce tailings water — and measure before and after. ▪ For small-scale mining leaders (90 days). Hold one session with your association on mercury-free processing, with STAMICO or Mining Commission support. 5.9 Key points Sustainability lies in what the mineral is turned into and what natural capital is protected.▪ The ore controls the circuit, recovery, reagent use and the character of the waste; characterise it for the▪ life of the mine. Classify waste rock by NAPP and NAG pH; encapsulate PAF; reuse only characterised NAF.▪ Upstream raises are the highest-risk method; GISTM requires named accountability, independent review,▪ monitoring with TARPs, tested emergency plans and disclosure. Mercury persists because alternatives are scarce; cleaner processing that pays more is the most effective▪ policy. 5.10 Self-test 5 1. Under strong sustainability, which cannot be traded for money? (a) ore reserves (b) equipment (c) critical natural capital such as safe drinking water (d) royalty income 2. Which instrument is legally binding on Tanzania? (a) GISTM (b) IRMA (c) Minamata Convention (d) Responsible Gold Mining Principles 3. A waste rock sample has 1.5% S and ANC 20 kg H SO /t. Its NAPP is about: (a) −25.9 (b) +25.9 (c)₂ ₄ +45.9 (d) −45.9 4. A sample with positive NAPP and NAG pH 3.0 should be: (a) used as road base (b) classified NAF (c) discharged (d) classified PAF and encapsulated 5. Which is highest on the waste hierarchy? (a) treat (b) dispose safely (c) avoid (d) recover 6. The tailings raising method generally regarded as highest risk is: (a) downstream (b) centreline (c) upstream (d) filtered dry stack 7. GISTM requires among other things: (a) an Accountable Executive, an Engineer of Record and independent review (b) zero tailings (c) only filtered tailings (d) Government ownership of dams 8. CIL rather than CIP is preferred when the ore: (a) is soft oxide (b) contains preg-robbing carbonaceous matter (c) is coarse-grained (d) has no sulphides 9. The Cyanide Code expectation for WAD cyanide in open water at a tailings facility is at or below about: (a) 0.5 (b) 5 (c) 50 (d) 500 mg/L 10. The Williamson breach shows chiefly that: (a) tailings dams never fail in Tanzania (b) GISTM caused the failure (c) diamonds produce no tailings (d) a policy is not a safety case; regulators need evidence of implementation Problem 5.1 A mid-size gold mine in Geita Region plans to raise its tailings dam by the upstream method and to use untested waste rock from a new pit as base for a community road. In no more than 150 words, advise the general manager and cite the SDGs and standards that support your advice. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 74

Problem 5.2 Classify a sample with total S 1.2%, ANC 45 kg H SO /t and NAG pH 6.4, and recommend its₂ ₄ placement. Re-rate and reflect. Score C5.1–C5.5 again. Complete the sentence: “Our mine will have contributed to sustainable development if, ten years after closure, …” Is your statement measurable, and does it name something lasting and something protected? Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 75

6 Mine Water Management: From Data to Decision Water connects every part of a mine. It enters as rain, groundwater and abstraction; it is used in processing, dust suppression and camps; it carries sediment, metals and reagents; it is stored in ponds and tailings facilities that must stay safe for decades; and after closure it remains in pit lakes, aquifers and streams on which communities depend. In Tanzania, managing water well is a condition of keeping the licence to operate. 6.1 Learning outcomes and self-rating 1. Classify every water stream at a mine and apply the principle of separation. 2. Build and check a monthly site water balance, including its closure error. 3. Identify the principal water risks, permits and KPIs at a Tanzanian mine. 4. Use a data-to-decision framework — probabilistic water balance and multi-criteria evaluation — to compare management options. 5. Design monitoring with trigger action response plans and a Special Water Management Programme. Rate yourself now (1–5) and note your evidence C6.1 I can name every water class at my site and where clean and contact water mix.▪ C6.2 I can compile a monthly water balance and calculate its closure error.▪ C6.3 I know my site’s water permits, their limits and their expiry dates.▪ C6.4 I can compare water management options on release risk, shortfall risk and expected cost.▪ C6.5 I can design a monitoring and TARP system that gives early warning.▪ 6.2 Two problems in one year In the Lake Victoria goldfields annual rainfall of about 950–1,300 mm is matched or exceeded by potential evaporation, yet mines still accumulate surplus water. Rain falls in a few months (typically November– May), while groundwater inflow from pits and underground workings, and water imported for processing, arrive all year. A mine can therefore be short of clean process water in September and hold a surplus of contaminated water it cannot legally discharge in April. Climate projections for East Africa indicate more intense rainfall, so designs based on the records available at construction may no longer be adequate. Table 6.1 Water experience at Tanzanian mines (figures as reported in published sources) Site or event What happened Implication Bulyanhulu (underground gold) About 950 mm/yr rain against about 1,700 mm/yr evaporation; about 82% of process water recycled; about 900 m³/d lake make-up; a 2002 zero-discharge rule doubled storage from about 360,000 to 720,000 m³; dewatering grew from about 10 to about 1,000 m³/d Dewatering growth and rule changes are the dominant uncertainties; storage expansion is a reactive response Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 76

Site or event What happened Implication North Mara (open-pit gold) About 9,000 m³/d demand against a Mara River licence of about 4,200 m³/d, the river often dry June–September; deficit became surplus from 2006 as pit inflow and dump seepage reported to the tailings dam; theft of pipes, meters and liners The balance must be updated as the mine changes; disruption belongs in the model North Mara tailings facility (2019) Fines of TZS 300 million and TZS 5.6 billion over seepage; remedial orders An empirical consequence cost for an uncontrolled release Williamson, Mwadui (2022) Tailings wall breach; slurry over land and homes; suspension over eight months Dam safety and water management are inseparable Bulyanhulu and Geita community water Infrastructure developed with councils Water assets can be designed for post-closure community use 6.3 Know your water: classes and separation Every stream belongs to one of a few classes, each with its own management principle. The most cost- effective rule is keep clean water clean: every cubic metre of rain from undisturbed ground allowed to flow onto a waste dump becomes a cubic metre of contact water that must be stored, reused or treated. Figure 6.1 Mine water classes and the management principle for each Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 77

Figure 6.2 Site water balance: inputs, uses, recycling and controlled outputs 6.4 Risks, permits and indicators Table 6.2 Mine water risks, controls and monitoring Risk Source Controls Monitoring Acid and metalliferous drainage PAF waste rock, pit walls, tailings Source control (cover, encapsulation); collection and lime treatment; passive wetlands for low flows pH, EC, sulphate, dissolved metals (Fe, Mn, As, Cu, Zn) Cyanide release Gold processing and tailings Cyanide destruction before discharge; Cyanide Code practice; lined ponds WAD and free cyanide at spigot, decant and downstream Sediment and turbidity Haul roads, stockpiles, disturbed land Diversion drains; sediment ponds; progressive revegetation TSS and turbidity after rain Groundwater drawdown Pit dewatering Hydrogeological model; supply to affected users; monitoring bores Levels in monitoring and community wells Water scarcity Dry seasons, competing users Maximise recycling; thickened tailings; storage planning m³ fresh water per tonne; recycle % Flooding and overtopping Extreme rainfall Design to appropriate storm return periods; spillways; emergency plans Pond levels; rainfall; freeboard alarms A mine must hold and comply with three sets of conditions at once: its water use permits for each abstraction and groundwater permits for boreholes; its discharge permit for any effluent, both from the Basin Water Board under the Water Resources Management Act 2009; and the conditions of its EIA certificate under the Environmental Management Act, with effluent meeting national water quality standards. Its mining licence and closure plan add conditions on tailings and long-term water quality. The site’s job is to reconcile these into a single monitoring programme. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 78

Table 6.3 Water KPIs for site dashboards KPI Definition Indicative good-practice target Fresh water intensity m³ of new water per tonne of ore processed Declining year on year; site benchmark Water recycle ratio Recycled ÷ total water used in process ≥ 70% for conventional tailings; higher for thickened or filtered Discharge compliance % of samples meeting permit limits 100% Balance closure error Unaccounted water ÷ total inputs < 10% Community water complaints Grievances per quarter and days to resolve Declining; all resolved within agreed time 6.5 The site water balance The water balance is the single most important tool: a quantified account of every input, use, recycle stream and output. A lumped monthly balance for ponds plus tailings supernatant is: S(t+1) = S(t) + P·(A_p + C·A_c) + D + I − k·E·A_p − U − V − Spill S storage; P rainfall; E pan evaporation; A_p open-water area; A_c disturbed catchment reporting to storage; C runoff coefficient; k pan-to-pond evaporation factor; D dewatering inflow; I imported water; U tailings entrainment and dust suppression; V forced evaporation. Volume above capacity is an uncontrolled release; volume below the minimum operating level is a process-water shortfall. Closure error = | S_measured − ( Q_in − Q_out)| ÷ Q_in.ε Δ Σ Σ Σ Accept the balance when < 10%.ε Worked example 6.1 — A wet month and a dry month (illustrative mine) Open water A_p = 30 ha (300,000 m²); disturbed catchment A_c = 60 ha (600,000 m²); C = 0.5; k = 0.8; dewatering D = 1,000 m³/d; lake import I = 900 m³/d; tailings and dust use U = 1,700 m³/d; 30-day months. April (P = 180 mm, E = 120 mm): rain on ponds 0.180 × 300,000 = 54,000; runoff 0.180 × 0.5 × 600,000 = 54,000; dewatering 30,000; import 27,000; evaporation 0.8 × 0.120 × 300,000 = 28,800; use 51,000. S =Δ 54,000 + 54,000 + 30,000 + 27,000 − 28,800 − 51,000 = +85,200 m³. September (P = 5 mm, E = 180 mm): rain 1,500; runoff 1,500; dewatering 30,000; import 27,000; evaporation 43,200; use 51,000. S =Δ −34,200 m³. Closure check for April. Surveys show the ponds actually gained 70,000 m³. Inputs Q_in = 165,000 m³. =Σ ε |70,000 − 85,200| ÷ 165,000 = 9.2% — just acceptable, but the model over-predicts; recalibrate C and k. Adaptive import rule. Stopping lake import in April alone cuts the gain to +58,200 m³ and saves 27,000 m³ of lake water — the cheapest measure available. 6.6 From data to decision Most guidance on mine water is descriptive. Operating managers face a decision problem: which of several investments or operating changes to make under uncertain rainfall, uncertain groundwater inflow and limited capital. A five-stage framework, designed for incomplete metering, short rainfall records and intermittent connectivity, turns data the mine already holds into a defensible choice. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 79

Figure 6.3 The five-stage data-to-decision framework for mine water management Table 6.4 The five stages and their data Stage Activity Tanzanian data sources 1 Acquire Rainfall, evaporation, flows, pond volumes, catchment areas, permit limits, water quality, piezometers, costs Site gauges; Tanzania Meteorological Authority stations; CHIRPS satellite rainfall for long series; flow meters and SCADA; drone or LiDAR pond surveys; Basin Water Board permit records; NEMC audits 2 Clean and calibrate Screen meter failures and outliers; fill rainfall gaps; calculate closure error; calibrate C and k against surveyed storage At least 24 months of monthly records 3 Simulate Monthly stochastic balance: thousands of realisations of rainfall, evaporation and dewatering growth Gamma-distributed monthly rainfall; wet and dry years; dewatering growth 0–15% a year 4 Evaluate Score options on release probability, shortfall probability, capital, expected five-year cost including risk cost, and lake abstraction; rank with TOPSIS and test weight uncertainty Stakeholder weights from management, NEMC, Basin Water Board, Mining Commission and communities 5 Decide and act Translate the preferred option into operating rules, TARP thresholds and the Special Water Management Programme Monthly recalibration; review before each wet season Illustrative results. The results below come from an illustrative data set built to the order of magnitude of published Lake Victoria goldfield figures. They demonstrate the method; they are not measurements of any operating mine. Re-run the method with your own site’s data before using it for decisions. Table 6.5 Performance of five options over five years (mean of 5,000 realisations; illustrative) Option Description Capex (US$ M) P(release) P(shortfall) Expected 5- yr cost (US$ M) O1 Status quo Constant lake import of 900 m³/d 0 100% 0% 15.5 Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 80

Option Description Capex (US$ M) P(release) P(shortfall) Expected 5- yr cost (US$ M) O2 Adaptive import rule Stop lake import Nov–May unless storage is low; use dewatering water first 0.05 74% 13% 6.0 O3 = O2 + diversion Clean-water diversion cuts catchment reporting to storage from 60 to 35 ha 0.45 19% 55% 2.4 O4 = O3 + spray evaporation 600 m³/d forced evaporation June– October when storage is high 1.00 9% 56% 2.5 O5 Raise storage Embankment raise to 1.1 million m³; operations unchanged 5.50 98% 0% 16.0 Figure 6.4 Probabilistic storage forecasts for the status quo, the adaptive rule with diversion, and the storage raise Figure 6.5 Risk–cost trade-off among options; bubble size is proportional to lake abstraction Three lessons stand out. First, storage only buys time when the net water gain is structural: raising the dam (O5), the conventional engineering response, delays the median first release from about 1.3 to 2.8 years at the highest cost and still leaves a 98 per cent release probability. Second, the most effective measures are operational and low-capital: using dewatering water before lake water, seasonal import rules and clean-water diversion cut the release probability to about 19 per cent at about one-sixth of the expected cost, within operating budgets. Third, expressing water risk as expected cost, anchored to a real Tanzanian penalty, puts water projects on the same footing as production projects in capital allocation. The water-reduction options raise the chance of a small dry-season shortfall, because they remove the surplus that buffered it; the trigger level in the adaptive rule must be tuned to balance the two risks. Sensitivity analysis shows that release probability is most sensitive to dewatering inflow, then tailings and dust water use — so metering every dewatering line and tracking tailings water entrainment are the Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 81

cheapest ways to reduce decision uncertainty. Calibration matters too: in the illustrative case design parameters over-predicted storage by about 37,000 m³ after two years; calibration cut the storage prediction error from about 27,000 to 8,000 m³. 6.7 Monitoring and trigger action response plans Fixed piezometer thresholds alone can be blind to a slow change in seepage behaviour, because pore pressure rises and falls with rain. A rainfall-corrected residual separates the two: regress daily piezometric head on an antecedent precipitation index over a period of normal behaviour, and raise an amber alert when the residual exceeds three standard deviations for three consecutive days, in addition to the static amber and red levels set by the Engineer of Record. In the illustrative record, a seepage anomaly starting at the end of the wet season was flagged on day 245, whereas the head did not cross the static amber level until day 344 — 99 days’ earlier warning. Figure 6.6 Rainfall-corrected piezometer residual compared with a fixed threshold (synthetic record) Figure 6.7 Integrated real-time monitoring: sense, transmit, store and check, analyse, act Monitoring architecture must suit remote Tanzanian sites: local data logging, solar power, and radio, cellular or satellite backhaul, with alerts routed to named people and data retained for audit. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 82

6.8 The Special Water Management Programme The preferred option is implemented through a Special Water Management Programme (SWMP) of eight elements under a governance layer with an accountable executive, a water committee and a site water steward. Figure 6.8 The eight elements of the Special Water Management Programme Table 6.6 Adapting the framework to Tanzanian mine types Mine type Dominant water risk Key uncertain input Priority options Large underground gold (Bulyanhulu type) Zero-discharge surplus Dewatering growth Import rules; reuse; spray evaporation; paste tailings Open-pit gold with CIL (North Mara, Geita type) Seepage; dry-season deficit Pit inflow; river flow Diversion; seepage interception; PAF placement Diamond / kimberlite (Williamson type) Dam safety; slurry release Phreatic surface Thickening; smaller pond; real- time TARP Underground gemstone (Mererani) Shaft flooding Storm rainfall Collar bunding; shared pumping; flood warning Artisanal and small- scale gold Mercury; sediment Processing location Settling sites; mercury-free processing Critical minerals (graphite, nickel, rare earths) Unknown geochemistry Acid drainage and radionuclide potential Characterisation; high-recycle circuits Coastal mineral sands Saline intrusion Aquifer response Abstraction limits; salinity monitoring Coal Acid drainage Overburden sulphur Selective placement; lime and passive treatment Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 83

Mine type Dominant water risk Key uncertain input Priority options Quarries and industrial minerals Sediment; drawdown Community well levels Wash-water recycling; sediment ponds Mines in closure (Buzwagi type) Long-term water quality Pit-lake chemistry Pit-lake modelling; asset transfer to LGAs Water infrastructure handed over at closure without clear responsibility for operation, maintenance and funding often fails. Including a post-closure criterion — the volume of usable water that shared infrastructure can supply to communities — rewards options that leave a resource rather than a liability. The same framework applies elsewhere: adapted to Indian opencast coal mines, where the dominant risk is acute monsoon flooding rather than slow accumulation, it pointed to drainage upgrades, a pre-monsoon sump drawdown rule and treatment of mine water for community supply. Field tasks for Chapter 6 ▪ Water map (14 days). Draw every water stream at your site and colour it by class (Figure 6.1). Mark where clean water mixes with contact water. ▪ Permit check (21 days). List every water use, groundwater and discharge permit, its limits, its expiry date and the sampling points that prove compliance. ▪ Monthly balance (60 days). Install or read flow meters on the main intake and the decant return; compile a monthly balance; calculate the closure error for two consecutive months; report the recycle ratio. ▪ Option screen (90 days). For your site’s biggest water problem, list at least three options including one operating rule and one diversion; estimate each one’s effect on release and shortfall risk and its cost. 6.9 Key points Keep clean water clean; separation is the cheapest water treatment.▪ A calibrated monthly water balance with closure error below 10% is the foundation of every water▪ decision. Storage only buys time when the net gain is structural; operating rules and diversion usually give more▪ risk reduction per shilling. Express water risk as expected cost so that water projects compete fairly for capital.▪ Rainfall-corrected TARP thresholds give earlier warning than fixed thresholds alone.▪ 6.10 Self-test 6 1. The single most useful tool for understanding where a mine’s water comes from and goes is: (a) a rainfall chart (b) a site water balance (c) a discharge permit (d) a grievance log 2. Which parameters best indicate acid mine drainage? (a) temperature, colour, odour (b) turbidity only (c) dissolved oxygen and nitrate (d) pH, sulphate and dissolved metals 3. Permits to abstract water and to discharge effluent are issued by: (a) the Basin Water Board (b) the Mining Commission (c) TRA (d) the District Commissioner 4. An acceptable water balance closure error is below about: (a) 1% (b) 10% (c) 25% (d) 50% 5. “Keep clean water clean” means: (a) treat all water (b) discharge rainwater untreated from dumps (c) divert runoff from undisturbed ground away from contact areas (d) stop dust suppression 6. In the illustrative case, raising storage capacity: (a) only delayed the first release, at the highest cost (b) eliminated releases (c) was cheapest (d) reduced lake abstraction most Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 84

7. Which input most affected release probability for the preferred option? (a) evaporation (b) camp use (c) dust suppression only (d) dewatering inflow 8. A water recycle ratio of at least about 70% is a typical target for: (a) filtered tailings only (b) conventional tailings (c) heap leach only (d) domestic water 9. The main advantage of a rainfall-corrected piezometer residual is: (a) it needs no data (b) it replaces the Engineer of Record (c) it detects a change in behaviour not explained by rain (d) it measures cyanide 10. Expressing water risk as an expected cost: (a) hides risk (b) places water projects on the same footing as production projects (c) is required by GISTM (d) is only for insurers Problem 6.1 A mine’s ponds cover 20 ha and its disturbed catchment 40 ha (C = 0.5, k = 0.8). In a month with 150 mm rain and 110 mm pan evaporation, dewatering is 24,000 m³, import 15,000 m³ and tailings and dust use 40,000 m³. Calculate the change in storage. If the survey shows a gain of 60,000 m³, calculate the closure error. Problem 6.2 List three low-capital options and one capital option for a mine heading towards an uncontrolled release in the next wet season, and state the data you would need to compare them. Re-rate and reflect. Score C6.1–C6.5 again. Which water decision at your site was taken without a calibrated balance, and what would the framework in this chapter have changed? Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 85

7 Mine Closure, the Digital Mine and Your Development Pathway Every mine closes. Whether it leaves a productive landscape, a new economic zone and a skilled community — or an abandoned pit, an unstable tailings dam and a public liability — is decided long before the last ore is mined. Closure is not the end of a mine’s life; it is the start of the land’s next life. This final chapter brings together closure, the digital tools that make every discipline in this book measurable, and the plan that turns your reading into change at your site. 7.1 Learning outcomes and self-rating 1. Explain the purpose, stages and components of closure planning, including completion criteria and financial assurance, and the obligations of a Tanzanian licence holder. 2. Draw lessons from Tanzanian closures and recognise closure preparedness at a worksite. 3. Frame post-mining redevelopment as a brownfield project and use GIS and remote sensing to plan and prove closure. 4. Assess your site’s digital maturity and prioritise realistic ICT and AI use cases with responsible- use safeguards. 5. Write a 90-day action plan and measure your own learning gain across the book. Rate yourself now (1–5) and note your evidence C7.1 I know the date, cost estimate, bond and agreed post-mining land use of my site’s closure plan.▪ C7.2 I can recognise good and poor closure preparedness when I walk a site.▪ C7.3 I can use free satellite imagery and drone data to document rehabilitation and disturbance.▪ C7.4 I can place my site on the digital maturity scale and specify the data a use case needs.▪ C7.5 I have a signed 90-day action plan with indicators and a mentor.▪ 7.2 Closure as a life-of-mine discipline Mine closure aims to leave the site safe (physically and chemically), stable (landforms, tailings, drainage), non-polluting (water and soil within agreed limits), fit for an agreed post-mining land use, and with a managed socio-economic transition — without leaving the public to pay. These objectives are pursued from feasibility to post-closure. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 86

Figure 7.1 Mine closure is designed at the start and executed throughout the life of mine Table 7.1 Key closure concepts Concept Meaning Progressive closure Rehabilitating disturbed areas as soon as they are no longer needed, during operations Final closure Decommissioning, rehabilitation and monitoring after mining ends Post-mining land use The agreed future use: grazing, forestry, water storage, agriculture, industry, conservation, settlement Completion criteria Measurable standards for safety, stability, water quality and vegetation that show land is ready for relinquishment Financial assurance Bond, escrow or other instrument guaranteeing closure funds even if the operator fails Relinquishment Formal acceptance by the State that obligations are met Care and maintenance Temporary suspension with the site kept safe — not closure Tanzanian obligations Minimum closure requirements were introduced under the Mining Act 2010 through the Mining (Safety, Occupational Health and Environmental Protection) Regulations 2010. The Mine Closure Guidelines (2019), issued under section 19 of the Mining Act, require holders of Special Mining Licences and Mining Licences to prepare a Progressive Mine Closure Plan during operations and a Final Mine Closure Plan addressing the end of mine life until the site reaches self-sustaining conditions, covering closure activities, reclamation cost, the rehabilitation bond and the duration of post-closure monitoring. The process is administered by the National Mine Closure Committee (NMCC), drawn from several Government institutions. Since 2024, environmental performance bonds under the EMA (GN 369 of 2024) add a decommissioning committee with powers to reassess bonds; the interaction between the two instruments should be clarified for each site. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 87

Table 7.2 Components of a mine closure plan and their cost drivers Plan component Content required Typical cost drivers Baseline and end land use Pre-mining conditions; agreed post- mining land use Studies, consultation Decommissioning Removal or transfer of plant, buildings, power and water infrastructure Demolition, salvage credits, hazardous material removal Landform and stability Pit walls, dumps and tailings facilities reshaped and made stable Earthmoving volumes, engineering design Rehabilitation Topsoil replacement, revegetation, erosion control Topsoil handling, nursery, maintenance Post-closure water Drainage, treatment of contaminated water, pit lake management Treatment plant life, monitoring duration Social transition Workforce redeployment, community asset handover, livelihoods Training, compensation, community projects Monitoring and maintenance Until completion criteria are met Years of monitoring, sampling, reporting Financial assurance Bond sized to third-party closure cost Bond instrument, periodic re- estimation Principle for cost estimation. The closure cost estimate and bond should reflect what it would cost the State or a third-party contractor to close the site if the operator could not — not the operator’s own discounted internal cost. Under-estimation is the most common reason closure liabilities fall on the public purse. Reassess the estimate at least every three years and at every major expansion. Table 7.3 International and Indian reference points Framework Key closure provisions ICMM Integrated Mine Closure: Good Practice Guide (2nd ed., 2019) Closure integrated into the life cycle; engagement; risk-based planning; costing; social transition IFC Performance Standards; World Bank Group EHS Guidelines for Mining Closure plan and financial provision from the project stage GISTM (2020) Tailings facilities designed and operated with closure in mind India — non-coal minerals Progressive and final closure plans in the mining plan, with financial assurance India — coal Escrow funded during operations; third-party monitoring; 2024 draft guidelines on transfer of social assets and a transition corpus 7.3 Tanzanian closures: lessons Golden Pride, Nzega — Tanzania’s first modern closure. Resolute Mining operated the open-pit gold mine from 1998, producing over 2.2 million ounces. Following Australian standards in the absence of national Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 88

guidance, it ran participatory rural appraisal from 2000, began public engagement on the end of mine life about four years before closure, and started progressive reclamation in the second year of mining. Non-acid- forming oxide waste was used as cover beneath topsoil; the pit was partly backfilled and the rest became a pit lake; community pressure led to small agricultural dams and a retained water treatment plant that still supplies Nzega. The statutory plan was approved in 2011, production ended in 2014 and relinquishment was approved in 2015. Facilities went to the Mineral Resources Institute, now part of the University of Dar es Salaam. Remaining problems: illegal small-scale mining on reclaimed land, reportedly with mercury near the lake, and wood harvesting and burning. Lesson: early engagement and progressive reclamation work; site security and small-scale mining must be planned from the outset. Buzwagi, Kahama — from closure to economic zone. Barrick closed Buzwagi in July 2021 after nearly 15 years. Tailings facilities were rehabilitated, the plant dismantled and livelihood projects funded. The site now hosts a training academy and a new airport terminal handed to Government, and with Kahama Municipal Council it has been gazetted and licensed as a Special Economic Zone; a 2021 pre-feasibility study estimated at least 3,000 jobs a year, and more than 11 investors have expressed interest. Lesson: a closed mine can be a serviced brownfield site, but the planning must start years before closure. The artisanal legacy. Thousands of small-scale sites are abandoned without closure. A 2025 Landsat study of a 352 km² gold-mining area in Singida found forest falling from about 38% to 10% between 1995 and 2023 and agricultural land rising from about 8% to 56%; households reported air pollution, biodiversity loss and land degradation alongside better housing and jobs. Closure policy must include progressive rehabilitation by small-scale licensees, rehabilitation of orphaned sites and organised use of residual resources. Tailings facilities carry the longest-lived closure risk (Chapter 5): closure plans must define how they will be made safe and stable in perpetuity, how they will be monitored and who will be responsible. Reading closure preparedness at a worksite Table 7.4 Closure readiness walk: eight observations What you see Interpretation Action A 6 m topsoil stockpile, bare and eroding, unused for three years Topsoil quality declining Keep stockpiles low and vegetated; use in progressive rehabilitation Dump faces at angle of repose with deep rills and no drainage benches Poor landform design Reshape and drain before planting Closure plan five years old, before a new pit and a tailings raise Plan and estimate out of date; liability understated Update plan and cost estimate Vigorous exotic grass where villagers expected grazing and firewood Revegetation does not match agreed land use Redesign species mix with the community Artisanal miners digging on a rehabilitated dump Site security and ASM not planned Engage or formalise small-scale miners as part of closure A water plant serving mine and town, closure in three years, no future owner Service will fail at handover Agree ownership, operation, funding and training now No monitoring boreholes downstream of the tailings facility No evidence that seepage is controlled Install bores; build baseline Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 89

What you see Interpretation Action Annual drone surveys of rehabilitated areas stored in GIS Good practice Use as evidence for completion criteria 7.4 Closure ideas and brownfield redevelopment Practical closure initiatives succeed when someone can answer seven questions: what exactly will be done; who benefits; will it work (technically, legally, financially); what could go wrong; who owns and pays for it during and after closure; what evidence will show success; and what is the first step within 90 days. Figure 7.2 The Closure Ideas canvas Table 7.5 Closure initiatives to develop Initiative Questions to think through Progressive rehabilitation trial plots on a completed dump Species and cover depths; how results feed the final plan; who monitors Pit lake for irrigation or aquaculture Water quality; safety and fencing; allocation; Basin Water Board permits; mercury risk Solar farm on a closed tailings facility Cover integrity and loading; grid connection; ownership; long-term monitoring Workforce transition programme Skills inventory; certification; links to new projects and the SEZ; timing Handover of a water plant to a community utility Ownership, tariffs, operator training, spares and funding Formalised small-scale mining on residual resources Licensing, cooperatives, mercury-free processing, safety, protection of reclaimed land Realistic cost estimate and bond review Third-party rates; contingencies; monitoring years; update frequency A brownfield is previously developed land that may carry contamination, infrastructure and legal complexity, but also offers serviced land, roads, power, water, buildings and a skilled workforce. Treating a closed mine as a brownfield project changes the question from “how do we restore what was here?” to “what could this site, its infrastructure and its people become?” Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 90

Figure 7.3 Post-mining redevelopment as a brownfield project 7.5 GIS and remote sensing for closure Remote sensing collects information about the land from satellites, aircraft and drones; GIS stores and analyses it in layers with field data, plans and boundaries. Together they let a mine compare the land before, during and after mining, measure areas, volumes and slopes, track vegetation through the Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), detect ground movement with InSAR, and produce objective, repeatable evidence for regulators and communities. Figure 7.4 GIS and remote sensing across the closure life cycle Table 7.6 Data sources useful for closure in Tanzania Source Resolution and frequency Cost Best use Landsat (archive since 1972) 30 m; about every 16 days Free Long-term change; baseline reconstruction Sentinel-2 10 m; about every 5 days Free Vegetation (NDVI) and disturbance monitoring Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 91

Source Resolution and frequency Cost Best use Sentinel-1 radar / InSAR services All-weather Free data; paid processing Deformation of tailings facilities, dumps and slopes Very-high-resolution commercial imagery Sub-metre Paid Detailed mapping; encroachment Drones with photogrammetry or LiDAR Centimetres; on demand Low to moderate Volumes, slopes, erosion, rehabilitation inspection Google Earth Engine; QGIS Platforms Free Processing and mapping without expensive software Figure 7.5 Remote sensing evidence from Tanzania (Singida) and India (Coal India) Coal India monitors land reclamation of its opencast mines by satellite — annually for mines with more than 5 million m³ of coal and overburden excavation a year, every three years for smaller mines — and publishes the results. Routine Sentinel-2 change detection and periodic drone surveys could give the NMCC and district authorities the same low-cost capability, for example to alert them early to new disturbance on reclaimed land at closed sites. 7.6 The digital mine Digital technology in mining is best understood as a layered stack. Value is created only at the top — in better decisions — but depends on the layers beneath: reliable sensors, connectivity that works at remote sites, and an integrated data platform. Many initiatives fail because they start with an AI application before the data foundation exists. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 92

Figure 7.6 The digital mine stack: from sensors to decisions Table 7.7 Digital maturity model for a mine site Level Description Typical next step 1 Paper-based Records on paper; data re-typed for reports Digitise core registers: permits, monitoring, maintenance 2 Digitised Spreadsheets and stand-alone software Single data platform; standard definitions 3 Connected Sensors and systems linked; near-real- time dashboards Automated alerts; data quality management 4 Predictive Analytics and AI forecast failures, water deficits, grade Embed predictions in work processes with human approval 5 Optimised Integrated optimisation across mine, plant, water and closure Continuous improvement; digital twin Table 7.8 ICT and AI applications mapped to the disciplines of this book Application Serves Data required Readiness in Tanzania Value Digital compliance register and permit calendar Compliance Permits, conditions, due dates High — low-cost software No missed obligations; audit trail Automated water monitoring and balance Water Flow meters, levels, rainfall, lab results Medium — integration needed Early warning; reliable reporting Tailings monitoring with anomaly detection Waste Piezometers, prisms, InSAR Medium — InSAR available remotely Detect instability before failure Drone and LiDAR surveys Waste, closure Imagery, point clouds High Volumes, rehabilitation progress, stockpile audit Predictive maintenance Operations Telematics, oil analysis, work orders Medium — depends on EAM maturity Higher availability; lower cost Ore-grade and process optimisation Operations Assays, drill data, plant sensors Medium to low Recovery; less reagent and water Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 93

Application Serves Data required Readiness in Tanzania Value Computer-vision safety monitoring Operations, compliance CCTV, edge computing Low to medium Fewer incidents; needs data-protection safeguards Mineral traceability and production reporting Compliance Weighbridge, XRF, transactions Medium — Mining Commission digitalisation under way Accurate royalties; market access Mobile extension apps for small-scale miners Waste, water Simple forms, photos, GPS High — very high mobile penetration Reach thousands of miners in Kiswahili Prioritise use cases by value × feasibility × data readiness, and pilot one before scaling. Responsible use of AI requires four safeguards: human accountability for every decision affecting safety, environment or people; data protection consistent with the Personal Data Protection Act 2022; cybersecurity of operational technology; and transparency so that regulators and communities understand how monitoring data are produced. A practical rule: use AI to find patterns and questions; use evidence to establish findings. 7.7 Your development pathway From reading to capability The training programme behind this book follows a 36-month pathway from a foundation course to institutionalised capability: coached workplace projects, advanced modules (GISTM practice, closure cost estimation, environmental auditing, AI use cases), anchoring of the modules in Tanzanian universities and institutes with a trainer-of-trainers cadre and Kiswahili e-learning, and competency certification. Figure 7.7 Development roadmap from foundation course to institutionalised capability (36 months) Table 7.9 Three-level competency framework Level Can do Evidence of competence Awareness Explain why the area matters, recognise hazards and obligations, know whom to call Correct answers to the self-tests and scenarios Practitioner Apply standard tools: water balance, compliance register, closure checklist, waste classification, LCC Completed workplace tool reviewed by a supervisor Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 94

Level Can do Evidence of competence Expert Design systems, review others’ work, lead audits, advise management and regulators Approved site plan or audit report; peer review; ability to train others The 90-day action plan Every reader should leave this book with a plan. Actions should be specific, measurable, achievable within your authority, relevant to your site and time-bound. Use your baseline maturity profile (Chapter 1) to choose the areas. Table 7.10 Your 90-day action plan # Area Problem identified at my site Action I will take Resources needed Indicator of success Deadline 1 Operations or handling 30 days 2 Waste 60 days 3 Water 60 days 4 Closure 90 days 5 Compliance and safety 30 days 6 ICT and AI 90 days A completed action-plan line Problem: the site has no measured water balance; the discharge permit renewal is due in six months. Action: install flow meters on the raw-water intake and decant return; compile a monthly balance in a shared spreadsheet; review with the plant manager. Resources: two flow meters; two days of an instrument technician; the method of Chapter 6. Indicator: closure error below 10% for two consecutive months; recycle ratio reported. Deadline: 60 days. Table 7.11 Evaluating your own development (adapted from the Kirkpatrick model) Level Question Measure When 1 Reaction Was the learning relevant? Your own reflection notes End of each chapter 2 Learning Did knowledge and skill improve? Self-test pre/post scores and learning gain Before and after each chapter 3 Behaviour Are you applying it at work? Action-plan progress at 30, 60 and 90 days; supervisor review Months 1–4 4 Results Has site performance improved? Water recycle %, findings closed, closure plan updated, availability, incidents Months 6– 36 Field tasks for Chapter 7 ▪ Closure readiness walk (30 days). Walk your site with Table 7.4 as a checklist; photograph and rate each item. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 95

▪ Closure plan health check (45 days). Find the latest closure plan and bond. Note its date, whether it reflects current operations, its cost basis and its post-mining land use. ▪ Brownfield asset register (60 days). List site assets with potential post-closure use and a possible future owner for each. ▪ Satellite time series (90 days). Using free imagery, document your site from before mining to today; mark rehabilitated and newly disturbed areas. ▪ One digital pilot (90 days). Choose one use case from Table 7.8, specify its data, owner and decision it will change, and run a small pilot. 7.8 Key points Closure starts at feasibility; progressive rehabilitation, realistic third-party cost estimates and adequate▪ bonds protect the public and the company. Golden Pride and Buzwagi show that early engagement and brownfield thinking turn closure into the▪ start of a new local economy. Free satellite data and drones make rehabilitation measurable and verifiable.▪ Build the digital stack from the bottom up; keep humans accountable for decisions that AI informs.▪ The measure of learning is what changes at your site in the 90 days after you finish this book.▪ 7.9 Self-test 7 1. When should closure planning begin? (a) in the last year of mining (b) after final ore is processed (c) at feasibility and design, continuing through operations (d) only when the regulator asks 2. Under the 2019 Guidelines, SML and ML holders must prepare: (a) only an EIA (b) a Progressive and a Final Mine Closure Plan (c) a plan only if villagers request it (d) a plan only for tailings 3. The Tanzanian closure process is administered by: (a) the Ports Authority (b) the Bank of Tanzania (c) district councils alone (d) the National Mine Closure Committee 4. A rehabilitation bond should be sized on: (a) the cost for the State or a third party to complete closure (b) the company’s discounted cost (c) salvage value (d) one year of monitoring 5. Completion criteria are: (a) the date mining stops (b) measurable standards showing land is safe, stable, non-polluting and fit for its agreed use (c) gold produced (d) retirement rules 6. Post-mining redevelopment for industry is best treated as: (a) a greenfield project (b) a charity project (c) a brownfield development project (d) exploration 7. The satellite index most used to track vegetation on rehabilitated land is: (a) NDVI (b) GDP (c) pH (d) RQD 8. The most common reason digital and AI initiatives fail is: (a) cheap software (b) too many sensors (c) regulators prohibit them (d) starting with AI before reliable data, connectivity and integration exist 9. Processing of worker biometric or monitoring data must be lawful under: (a) the Mining Act (b) the Personal Data Protection Act 2022 (c) the water law (d) the Closure Guidelines 10. A tall, bare topsoil stockpile unused for three years indicates: (a) declining topsoil quality; stockpiles should be low, vegetated and used progressively (b) good practice (c) imminent closure (d) nothing relevant Problem 7.1 Your pre-test score for this chapter was 9 out of 12 marks available and your post-test 11 out of 12. Calculate your normalised learning gain and interpret it. Problem 7.2 For a mine you know, write a half-page brownfield brief: key assets; main risks to remove; two candidate new uses; the local institutions needed; one anchor use; and what must be done before closure to make it possible. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 96

Re-rate and reflect — and complete the book. Score C7.1–C7.5 again. Then return to Appendix A and complete the “after” column for all 35 statements. Compare your site maturity profile today with your baseline, and write one paragraph: what belief about mining did you hold at the start of this book that you no longer hold, and who will you teach what you learned? Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 97

Appendix A — Capability Profile Rate each statement from 1 to 5 using Table P.2 before you begin the chapter and again when you finish it. A rise counts only if you can name evidence from your own work. Total each chapter (maximum 25) and the book (maximum 175). Table A.1 Capability profile No. Capability statement Before After Evidence from my work C1.1 I can describe the current profile of Tanzania’s minerals sector with figures C1.2 I can name the national policy anchors that shape my site and say what each asks of it C1.3 I can explain state participation, royalties and local content as they affect my organisation C1.4 I can trace a single site decision through waste, water, closure, compliance and data C1.5 I know my site’s maturity in each of the five areas and which area is weakest C2.1 I can name the main national laws and regulations that govern my site C2.2 I can trace a site obligation back to its law and policy and explain why it exists C2.3 I know which regulator is responsible for each of my site’s main obligations C2.4 I know who owns each major obligation and what evidence proves compliance C2.5 I can lead an incident investigation from scene control to verified corrective action C3.1 I can select and match loading and hauling equipment using a structured process C3.2 I can produce a time-usage breakdown (MA, UA, E, OEE) and name the largest loss C3.3 I can calculate cycle time, match factor and fleet size for dry and wet seasons C3.4 I can calculate owning and operating cost per tonne and compare options with it C3.5 I can explain how Tanzanian conditions change equipment availability and cost C4.1 I can map my site’s handling chain with availability and losses at each link C4.2 I can calculate series-system availability and conveyor payback Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 98

No. Capability statement Before After Evidence from my work C4.3 I can appraise a handling technology for productivity, safety, environment and fit C4.4 I can build a life-cycle cost comparison and defend an investment with it C4.5 I can name the digitisation step and local services that would most improve handling C5.1 I can explain sustainable mining and the standards applied to my site C5.2 I can read my plant’s flowsheet and say where gold, water and reagents are lost C5.3 I can classify waste rock as acid forming or not and say how to place it C5.4 I can assess my tailings facility against the six GISTM topics with evidence C5.5 I can explain mercury use in ASGM and the practical alternatives in Tanzania C6.1 I can name every water class at my site and where clean and contact water mix C6.2 I can compile a monthly water balance and calculate its closure error C6.3 I know my water permits, their limits and their expiry dates C6.4 I can compare water options on release risk, shortfall risk and expected cost C6.5 I can design a monitoring and TARP system that gives early warning C7.1 I know the date, cost estimate, bond and land use of my site’s closure plan C7.2 I can recognise good and poor closure preparedness when I walk a site C7.3 I can use free satellite imagery and drone data to document rehabilitation C7.4 I can place my site on the digital maturity scale and specify a use case’s data C7.5 I have a signed 90-day action plan with indicators and a mentor Table A.2 Summary of your learning Chapter Before (/25) After (/25) Self-test pre (/10) Self-test post (/10) Learning gain g 1 Context, policy and the integrated mine 2 Compliance, safety and investigation Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 99

Chapter Before (/25) After (/25) Self-test pre (/10) Self-test post (/10) Learning gain g 3 Operations, machinery and productivity 4 Bulk material handling and logistics 5 Processing, waste and tailings 6 Mine water management 7 Closure, digital mine and pathway Book total /175 /175 /70 /70 Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 100

Appendix B — Answers to Self-Tests Multiple-choice answers Table B.1 Answer key Q Ch 1 Ch 2 Ch 3 Ch 4 Ch 5 Ch 6 Ch 7 1 c b d c c b c 2 c a b a c d b 3 c d b d b a d 4 b c c b d b a 5 c b a c c c b 6 a d c b c a c 7 b a b d a d a 8 a c d b b b d 9 b b a c c c b 10 b d b a d b a Problems Problem 1.1 2024: 3.42 ÷ 4.12 = 83.0%. 2025: 4.754 ÷ 5.402 = 88.0%. Earnings have become more concentrated in one commodity whose value is set by the world price, so the sector is more exposed to a fall in the gold price. Diversification into critical minerals and value addition reduces that exposure. Problem 1.2 Closure (1.5) and digital systems (1.6) are the lowest and are critical gaps. Table 1.7 shows that closure cost is driven by waste landforms and long-term water treatment, and that every area depends on auditable data. A sound choice is closure (update the plan and cost estimate, start progressive rehabilitation) and digital data (digitise the monitoring and maintenance registers), with water as the next priority because its score is also below 2. Problem 2.1 A strong answer names the exact task and frequency, the site procedure, the permit or licence condition, the regulation (with its GN number), the Act, the policy and the purpose in plain words; names the accountable and responsible persons; gives evidence that shows the control works, not only that it was written; and identifies at least one unconfirmed link or gap with the person who will close it. Problem 2.2 Neutral questions, for example: “Please describe, in your own words, what happened.” “Where were you, and what could you see?” “How was the truck being driven before the collision?” “What did you know about the brakes at the start of the shift?” “What could have prevented this?” Corrective actions on the hierarchy: engineering — physical out-of-service control (keys removed or electronic lock-out linked to the CMMS when a brake defect is reported), with evidence from functional brake tests and audit of defect- to-release records; administrative — a pre-start brake test and a rule that only a named maintenance supervisor can release a red-tagged vehicle, with evidence from field observation on night shift; contract — owner–contractor agreement on defect reporting and KPIs that do not reward tonnes over safety, with evidence from a joint audit. Responsibility is shared; the investigation should not simply transfer blame to the contractor. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 101

Problem 3.1 Fuel 60 × 1.60 = US$96.0/h (+12.0). Tyres 120,000 ÷ 4,000 = US$30.0/h (+6.0). Operating cost = 176.0 + 18.0 = US$194.0/h; total = 50.7 + 194.0 = US$244.7/h; cost per tonne = 244.7 ÷ 225 ≈ US$1.09/t, up about 8%. Problem 3.2 Scheduled 680 h; available 560 h; operating 480 h; effective 420 h. MA = 82.4%; UA = 85.7%; E = 87.5%; effective utilisation = 61.8%; OEE = 0.618 × 0.95 = 58.7%. The largest loss is downtime (120 h), a maintenance and availability problem. Problem 4.1 0.85 × 0.92 × 0.90 × 0.96 = 0.676. Loader to 0.92: 0.731 (+0.055). Crusher to 0.96: 0.721 (+0.045). Improve the loader. Problem 4.2 Saving = 3,000,000 × 6 × (0.18 − 0.05) = US$2.34 million a year; payback = 30 ÷ 2.34 = 12.8 years. Not justified on cost alone. It may be justified if road safety, dust, community or regulatory benefits are valued, if tonnage will grow, if capital can be shared with a neighbouring plant, or if diesel prices rise. Problem 4.3 LCC = 200,000 + 60,000 × 4.968 = US$498,080. Problem 5.1 A strong answer (15 points): names the upstream raise as the highest-risk method and recommends GISTM governance, an Engineer of Record review and an alternative such as a downstream or centreline raise or thickened tailings (4); requires geochemical testing (ABA and NAG) before reuse and allows only NAF rock for the road (4); cites SDGs 3, 6, 12, 15 and 16 (3); cites GISTM, IFC PS3 or an industry standard, and Tanzanian EIA and Mining Act obligations (2); is concise and actionable (2). Problem 5.2 MPA = 1.2 × 30.6 = 36.7; NAPP = 36.7 − 45 = −8.3; NAG pH 6.4. The sample is NAF with a low margin. Place it in the general dump; do not use it as an outer cover or road base until kinetic testing confirms behaviour. Problem 6.1 Rain on ponds 0.15 × 200,000 = 30,000; runoff 0.15 × 0.5 × 400,000 = 30,000; evaporation 0.8 × 0.11 × 200,000 = 17,600. S = 30,000 + 30,000 + 24,000 + 15,000 − 17,600 − 40,000 =Δ +41,400 m³. Inputs = 99,000 m³. Closure error = |60,000 − 41,400| ÷ 99,000 = 18.8% — above 10%, so the balance is not acceptable. Check meters and survey, look for unmetered inflows (for example seepage or extra catchment) and recalibrate C and k. Problem 6.2 Low-capital options: an adaptive import rule (stop external import in the wet season and use dewatering water first); clean-water diversion drains and bunds to cut the catchment reporting to storage; increased reuse of contact water in the plant and for dust suppression; seasonal spray evaporation. Capital option: raise storage or build a treatment plant for permitted discharge. Data needed: a calibrated monthly balance with closure error, long rainfall and evaporation series, metered dewatering and its trend, catchment areas from survey, current storage and capacity, costs, and permit conditions. Problem 7.1 g = (11 − 9) ÷ (12 − 9) = 0.67, a medium gain at the upper end. Most of the remaining gap is likely to be in observation and judgement; reinforce it through the closure readiness walk. Problem 7.2 A strong brief lists real assets (land, buildings, power, water, roads, skills, data); the contamination, stability and legal title risks to remove; two plausible uses linked to regional demand; the council, utility, training or investment institutions needed; one anchor use or tenant; and what must start before closure — engagement, asset inventory, de-risking studies and agreements on ownership and funding. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 102

Appendix C — Glossary Table C.1 Glossary Term Meaning Acid–base accounting (ABA) Comparison of a rock’s acid-generating and acid-neutralising capacity Availability, mechanical (MA) Available hours ÷ scheduled hours Bank and loose cubic metre In-situ and broken volume of rock; loose density = bank density ÷ (1 + swell) Brownfield Previously developed land with infrastructure and legacies, redeveloped for a new use Closure error Unaccounted water ÷ total inputs in a water balance Completion criteria Measurable standards that show rehabilitated land is ready for relinquishment Double-loop learning Questioning the assumptions and rules behind an action, not only correcting the action Effective grade Grade resistance plus rolling resistance, in per cent Engineer of Record (EoR) The qualified engineer responsible for a tailings facility’s design and performance Financial assurance Bond or other instrument guaranteeing closure funds if the operator fails First Mile Connectivity Mechanised movement of coal from pithead to dispatch point (India) Freeboard Vertical distance between pond level and embankment crest Heutagogy Self-determined learning in which the learner decides what, how and why to learn ICAM Incident Cause Analysis Method, separating failed defences, actions, conditions and organisational factors Life-cycle cost (LCC) Present value of all costs of an asset from acquisition to disposal Match factor (Trucks × loader time per truck) ÷ (loaders × truck cycle time) NAPP Net acid producing potential = MPA − ANC NDVI Normalised Difference Vegetation Index, a satellite measure of green vegetation OEE Overall equipment effectiveness = MA × UA × E × payload performance Phreatic surface Level of saturation within an embankment Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 103

Term Meaning Progressive rehabilitation Rehabilitating disturbed land as soon as it is no longer needed, during operations Rolling resistance Resistance from tyre–road contact, as a percentage of gross weight Surge capacity Storage between handling links that absorbs short stoppages TARP Trigger action response plan: predefined actions for monitoring thresholds Water balance Quantified account of every input, use, recycle stream and output of water Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 104

Appendix D — Sources and Further Reading Source documents of the training programme This book compiles and extends the following documents prepared by the author for the Modern Mine Operations and Sustainable Mining programme (October 2026): Preface to the Training Manual (HR development programme); Session S1 Orientation and Context; Learning Companion B, National Policy Anchors; Session S2 Sustainable Mining and Mine Waste Management; Session S3 Modern Mining and Bulk Material Handling; Session S4 Mine Closure Planning and Land Reclamation; From Run-of-Mine to Responsible Tailings; Moving Tanzania’s Minerals; Governing Mining Waste in Tanzania; Surface Mining Machinery: Selection, Deployment and Productivity; People, Licence and Ore: Social Dimensions and Behavioural Science in Tanzanian Mining; From Data to Decision: A Probabilistic Water Balance Framework for Tanzanian Mines (draft paper); Tanzania Minerals Sector Review (draft paper); Surface Mine Productivity and Fleet Decisions (lecture note); Learning from Every Incident: Accident and Incident Investigation in Tanzanian Mines; and From Policy to Practice: Tracing Your Site’s Legal Obligations. Tanzanian sector, law and policy 1. Ministry of Minerals budget statements 2025/26 and 2026/27, as reported by TanzaniaInvest, Zambia Monitor, The EastAfrican, Daily News and KT Press (2025–2026). 2. Giyani, B. F. and Salama, A. (2025). Development of mining industry in Tanzania: a review. Journal of the SAIMM 125(10), 581–592. doi:10.17159/2411-9717/3629/2025. 3. Olan’g, S., Kafumu, P. and Silas, L. (2024). Strategic Minerals in Tanzania: Policy Options for Expanding Domestic Value Chains. UONGOZI Institute. 4. United Republic of Tanzania. Mining Act, Cap. 123 (R.E. 2019, as amended); Natural Wealth and Resources Acts 2017; Mining (Local Content) Regulations 2018 and amendments (GN 479 of 2022; GN 563 of 2025); Mining (CSR) Regulations 2023; Mining (State Participation) Regulations 2020; Mine Closure Guidelines 2019; Mining (Safety, Occupational Health and Environmental Protection) Regulations 2010; Mining (Technical Support to Small Scale Miners) Regulations 2025. 5. United Republic of Tanzania. Environmental Management Act, Cap. 191 and Amendment Act 2025; EIA and Audit (Amendment) Regulations 2018; Hazardous Waste Control and Management Regulations 2021 (GN 389); Environmental Performance Bond Regulations 2024 (GN 369); Water Resources Management Act 2009; Occupational Health and Safety Act 2003; Personal Data Protection Act 2022. Available through TanzLII (tanzlii.org). 6. East Africa Law Society / SIRD. Health and Safety Laws and Practice in Tanzania. 7. Natural Resource Governance Institute (2021). Governance of Tanzania’s mining, oil and gas sectors. Cases 8. Intergovernmental Forum on Mining (2022). Case study: inclusive closure and post-mining transition at the Golden Pride mine, Tanzania. 9. Mining Weekly (2025). Former mine sees new life as training centre, SEZ (Buzwagi). 10. IPIS (2025). Community perspectives after the Williamson tailings dam collapse; Petra Diamonds updates; The Citizen (2022). 11. Mining Technology / Mining Weekly / The Citizen (2019). North Mara fines and Environmental Protection Order. Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 105

12. Shelp, M. L. et al. (2009). Mine water management in modern African mining operations. IMWA Symposium. 13. Lameck, A. S. et al. (2025). Land use/land cover changes due to gold mining in the Singida region. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 14. Reuters / Mining Weekly (2024), The Chanzo (2026), Daily News (2025), Al Jazeera (2008): Bariadi, Makuyuni, Nyandolwa and Mererani incidents. Standards and technical references 15. Global Tailings Review (2020). Global Industry Standard on Tailings Management. 16. ICMM (2019). Integrated Mine Closure: Good Practice Guide, 2nd ed.; ICMM (2021). Water Reporting: Good Practice Guide, 2nd ed. 17. International Cyanide Management Institute. International Cyanide Management Code. 18. UNEP. Minamata Convention on Mercury. 19. IFC (2012). Performance Standards on Environmental and Social Sustainability; World Bank Group EHS Guidelines for Mining. 20. ISO 55000/55001:2024 Asset management; ISO 45001; ISO 14001; IEC 60300-3-3 Life cycle costing; IEC 62740 Root cause analysis; SAE JA1011 RCM. 21. Columbia Center on Sustainable Investment et al. (2016). Mapping Mining to the Sustainable Development Goals: An Atlas. 22. Marsden, J. O. and House, C. I. (2006). The Chemistry of Gold Extraction, 2nd ed. SME. Wills, B. A. and Finch, J. A. (2016). Wills’ Mineral Processing Technology, 8th ed. 23. Hustrulid, W., Kuchta, M. and Martin, R. (2013). Open Pit Mine Planning and Design, 3rd ed. CRC Press. 24. CEMA. Belt Conveyors for Bulk Materials, 7th ed. 25. Ministry of Coal, Government of India / PIB (2025). First Mile Connectivity projects. 26. Hase, S. and Kenyon, C. (2000). From andragogy to heutagogy. UltiBASE. Blaschke, L. M. (2012). Heutagogy and lifelong learning. IRRODL 13(1). Responsible Mining in Practice · Tanzanian Ground, Global Principles 106